Analiz texta

THE SCHEME FOR THE STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT1
1.
Speak of the author of the text.
2.
Discuss the text.
2.1. Share your first impressions of the text.
2.2. Give the general definition of the text.
2.3. Give the summary of the text.
2.4. State the main idea of the text and point out the problems touched upon by the author.
2.5. Enlarge on the general mood.
3.
Analyse the plot and point out the compositional pattern of the text.
4.
Divide the text into logically complete parts.
5.
Give the detailed analysis of each logically complete part.
6.
Make up the character sketches.
7.
Think what is more important in the text: plot development or character drawing.
8.
Summarize all your observations.
Commentaries on the procedure of the analysis.
1. Speak of the author (put it in a nutshell)
1.1
What do you know about the author’s family and his life?
You can use the following phrases:
- to spring from a … family; to come of - быть выходцем из … семьи;
(from) a family;
- to show (to give) promise (at an early age);
подавать
надежды
(в
раннем
возрасте);
- to earn (make) one’s living as a writer; - зарабатывать на жизнь творчеством.
to live by writing; to live by one’s pen.
2.
What do you know about the author’s literary career?
The following phrases will help you:
- to try one’s hand at drama (writing Пробовать писать для театра (пьесы,
plays, short stories);
рассказы);
- to draw on one’s own experience;
Писать на основании собственного
опыта;
- to choose the novel (the short story …) Выбирать жанр романа (рассказа);
as one’s medium; to write in the genre of писать в жанре рассказа (детективного
the short story (detective story);
рассказа);
- to gain (win) recognition (popularity);
Добиться признания, стать известным;
- recognition was slow to come (to him);
Он не сразу добился признания;
- to set out as a critic, …;
Начинать как критик;
- to be ( to have) a success;
Иметь успех;
- to be a failure;
Потерпеть провал;
- to be a critical and a commercial Получить
благоприятные
success (failure); to be critically and (неблагоприятные) отзывы и принести
commercially a success (a failure);
большой доход (убытки);
- to be a writer of (outstanding, great) Быть
promise; to be a writer to watch;
многообещающим
писателем;
быть писателем с будущим;
- to subject somebody, something to Подвергнуть кого – либо, что – либо
scathing
(devastating,
scorching) резкой (уничтожающей, суровой…)
criticism;
критике;
- to take somebody as one’s model;
Считать кого – либо образцом для
подражания;
-
to
come
to
(literary,
dramatic) Выйти в число выдающихся писателей
prominence;
(драматургов);
- to be (make) a (smashing, crashing) hit;
Иметь
огромный
(колоссальный)
успех;
- to be a best–seller;
Быть бестселлером, ходовой книгой;
быть автором бестселлера;
- to make a stir; to be a sensation;
Произвести сенсацию;
- to draw one’s subject (characters) from Обращаться к повседневной жизни в
everyday life; to turn to everyday life for поисках тем (героев);
one’s subject (characters);
- a prolific author;
Плодовитый писатель;
- to be at the height of one’s popularity Быть в расцвете славы (творчества);
(one’s creative powers);
- to be (now) at work on…
В настоящее время работать над…
NOTE!
В английском языке нет прилагательного «гениальный». Такое словосочетание как
«гениальный поэт (писатель, драматург и т.д.)» переводится существительным genius (гений,
2
гениальный человек, гениальная личность) или словосочетанием a poet (writer, playwright) of genius,
где слово genius тоже является существительным. Можно использовать прилагательные: brilliant,
outstanding. Например, a brilliant novel, writer, an outstanding play, story, writer.
Now that you are through with the basic facts about the author of the text, you can begin analysing
the text proper.
2. Discuss the text
After the first reading of the text you are expected to share your (first) impressions.
2.1 Preliminary discussion.
What do you think of the story (text)? /What is your opinion of the story? What is your general
impression of the text?
Who are the main characters?
Where and when does the story take place?
The following phrases will come useful:
- it is a very enjoyable text;
-
чтение
текста
доставило
удовольствие;
- it is a powerful story (extract);
- этот рассказ (отрывок) производит
сильное впечатление;
- the power of the story;
- сила воздействия рассказа
- to be (make) good (easy, difficult, etc.) - читается с интересом (легко, с
reading;
трудом);
- to hold the reader’s attention (interest); to keep the reader interested;
завладеть
вниманием
читателя;
удерживать интерес читателя;
- to keep the reader in suspense; to have - держать читателя в напряжении;
(a sense of) suspense;
- the greatness (merit) of the text lies (rests) in its profound satire;
достоинством
текста
является
глубина сатирического описания;
- to read a text with unflagging (with - читать текст с неослабевающим
never slackening) interest;
интересом (вниманием);
- one’s interest (attention) (never) flags - интерес (внимание) (не ослабевает)
(dwindles);
начинает ослабевать;
- to have great merits;
- иметь большие достоинства;
- to have some demerits;
- иметь недостатки;
- to rate a novel (story) among the best in - относить роман (рассказ) к лучшим
…;
произведениям в …;
3
- of all times;
-
когда–либо
существовавших
в
истории;
- to deal with problems of topical interest; -
затрагивать
злободневные,
актуальные темы;
- the text is chiefly concerned with - содержанием текста является… ;
(chiefly deals with);
- it’s a novel (a story) (written, meant) for -
роман
(рассказ)
teenagers (adolescents, young people), предназначен)
для
(написан,
подростков
etc.; the text is addressed to teenagers, (взрослых, молодежи) и т.д.;
etc.;
- some of the episodes are not quite -
некоторые
эпизоды
не
satisfactory (didn’t come off);
удачны;
- the author is successful at (in)…;
- автору удается (удаются)…;
совсем
- (not) to be the author’s strong point - (не) быть сильной стороной писателя.
(forte).
2.2 Give the general definition of the text under study (under discussion/ consideration/
observation/ examination)
Any work of fiction consists of relatively independent elements – narration, description, dialogue,
interior monologue, digression, etc.
Narration is dynamic, it gives a continuous account of events.
Description is static, it is a verbal portraiture of an object, person or scene. It may be detailed and
direct or impressionistic, giving few but striking details.
Through the dialogue the characters are better portrayed, it also brings the action nearer to the
reader, makes it seem swifter and more intense.
Interior monologue renders the thoughts and feelings of a character.
Digression consists of an insertion of material that has no immediate relation to the theme or action.
It may be lyrical, philosophical, critical, psychological, etc.
Thus you should say if the text under analysis presents a piece of narration, namely a first-person
narrative or a third-person narrative. To analyse the type of narrative, it is important to distinguish between
the author (the person who wrote the story), and the narrator (the person or voice telling the story). The
author may select a first-person narrative, when one of the characters tells of things that only he or she saw
and felt. In a third-person narrative the omniscient (всеведущий) author moves in and out of people’s
thoughts and comments freely on what the characters think, say, do.
According to its genre, the text may represent: a detective story or whodunnit (детектив), spy story,
travelogue, fairy-tale story, ghost story, adventure story, myth, tear-jerker, story with social significance,
4
folk-tale, thriller/ spine-chiller/ horror story, humorous story, science-fiction story, legend, crime story,
romantic story, western, parable, joke, love story, etc). The text may be intercepted (interwoven, interlaced,
intermingled) with a dialogue, a description, character drawing, an account of events, portraiture, a historical
event, a satirical portrayal of society, a humorous episode, a psychological portrayal of personages, etc.
If the text contains various elements, name all of them and give examples from the text under study
to prove your statements.
2.3 Give the summary of the text
A summary is the expression in a condensed form (сжатое выражение) of the principal content of
any piece of writing. In other words the summarizer should briefly render the main idea in his own words.
A summary is a good test of your ability to understand what you have read. If you can pick out
essential points and then find your own ways of expressing them, you have really understood the passage.
The procedure for preparing a summary consists of four steps: 1) reading; 2) selecting; 3) writing; 4)
comparing.
First you should read the passage carefully to understand its meaning, then picking out the essentials,
put the idea expressed into your own words. Having grasped the essentials you now reread the passage to
see how well you have understood the details.
A very important point in summarizing is that you should omit examples and details where possible.
The last step in writing a summary is comparing the written summary with the original passage to
make sure that the essence of the original has been reproduced in a distinctly different language, that no
idea, which was not in the original, has been introduced in the summary.
As for the length, the summary should be shorter than the original piece of writing. How much
shorter is determined by the purpose of summary. If it is to serve as a self-aid in reviewing, the summarizer
has to give only a general statement of the essential thought of the original. As for the summary, supposed
for analysis of the text, its length can vary from 1/10 to 1/4 of the length of the original.
How to write a summary:
1.
Read the passage that you will have to summarize carefully.
2.
Find the topic sentence of each paragraph. Write a list of points in a note form. Don’t include
unnecessary facts.
3.
Connect your points to write a rough draft of the summary in your own words. Link all your
sentences in a logical progressive or chronological arrangement. Refer to the passage only when you want to
make sure of some points.
4.
Compare your summary with the original and cut out all non-essential points.
5.
Mind some of the ways used in cutting down the length of a passage:
-
illustrative details must be omitted;
-
ideas expressed in the figurative language must be put simply and directly;
5
-
change direct narration to indirect whenever it is possible;
-
use words instead of word combinations and word combinations instead of sentences;
-
omit figures of speech, repetitions and most examples;
-
do not use personal pronouns, use proper names;
-
do not introduce any extra material by way of opinion, interpretation or appreciation.
2.4 State (formulate, point out) the main idea (theme, the main line of thought, the author’s
message, the main thread) that goes through the text
What is the theme(the idea) of the text?
Theme is a salient abstract idea that emerges from a literary work’s treatment of its subject-matter; or
a topic recurring in a number of literary works. While the subject of a work is described concretely in terms
of its action (e.g. “the adventure of a newcomer in a big city”), its theme or themes will be described in more
abstract terms (e.g. love, war, revenge, betrayal, fate, etc.). The theme of a work may be announced
explicitly, but more often it emerges indirectly. It is up to the reader to collect and combine all his
observations and finally to try to formulate the idea illustrated by the story.
You can find the following phrases useful when formulating the main idea of the text:
- the main point the author is trying to - главная мысль автора заключается в
make clear (to put across is …); the main …
idea he is trying to convey (to express) is
…;
-
to
carry
(have)
a
deep
social -
(psychological) message;
нести
(содержать)
социальную
глубокую
(психологическую)
направленность.
- to expose the vices (evils, faults) of -
изобличать
society;
общества.
- to preach retreat (escape) from reality;
-
пороки
проповедовать
(недостатки)
уход
от
действительности.
(not) to cut oneself off from the outside (не) изолироваться от окружающего
world the text is impregnated (penetrated) мира. текст пронизан идеей(ями)…
throughout with the ideals of (+gerund);
- the hero’s outlook (ideals);
-
мировоззрение
(духовный
мир)
героя.
- the idea the author carries to the mind of - мысль, которую автор старается
the reader can be formulated by a proverb донести до читателя, может быть
…
выражена пословицей…
6
Point out the problem(s) that the author touches upon in the text under study.
Some texts are problematic, but some are more informative. In the text analysed you should single
out the problems raised by the writer. Usually there are several problems in the text. Sometimes the central
problem concerns the main idea of the text.
You should always remember that to formulate the problem, you should first of all single out the
existing contradictions in the subject matter of a story, which can serve the ground for the problem.
The problem(s) may be of psychological, social, philosophical, etc. character (e.g. the problem of
incomplete family, or of imperfection of the system of education, or of racial discrimination, etc.). They may
concern educational, medical, cultural, economic, political, etc. spheres of men’s activity. Mind that the
author doesn’t always suggest the solution of the problems but just touches upon them.
2.5 Enlarge on the general mood (slant, tenor, tone, key) of the text
The author’s choice of characters, events, situations, details and his choice of words are by no means
accidental. Whatever leads us to grasp the author’s attitude to his/her subject matter is called mood
(настроение) of the text.
So, the general mood of the text is the emotional atmosphere of the text (or of any piece of writing),
as it impresses the reader.
The general mood of the text, concerning its subject-matter, may be satirical, humorous, pathetic,
(un) emotional, cheerful, light, solemn, nervous, gloomy, optimistic, pessimistic, lyrical, dramatic,
melodramatic, matter-of-fact, dry, ironic(al), sentimental, business-like, depressing, etc.
Mind that in this point of stylistic analysis you should just characterize the mood in general, without
examples, explanation and without details, but pay attention to any change of the mood as the events unfold
(You’ll analyse the atmosphere of the text in detail when analysing each logically complete part of it, see
point 5).
3. Analyse the plot of the text (extract, story) and point out the compositional pattern of the text
(постройте сюжетную линию текста)
Plot (фабула) is the plan of a literary composition comprising a series of incidents which are
gradually unfolded. As every plot is the selected version of events and situations presented to the reader in a
certain order, you should follow and name the exact events from the text (without describing them), when
analysing the compositional pattern of the text.
Do not try to read, count and list sentences or paragraphs. Point out only the events. No matter how
insignificant or deceptively casual, the events of the story are meant to suggest the character’s morals and
motives. Sometimes the events in the plot are organized chronologically. At other times there are flashbacks
(воспоминания) and foreshadowing (предвосхищение) – jumps back and forth in time.
7
The four structural components of the plot are: exposition (the beginning of the plot), complication
(the rising action), climax (the culmination) and denouement (the falling action).
Thus you should point out:
a)
Exposition (завязка). It contains a short presentation of time, place and characters of the
story. It is usually to be found at the beginning of the text, but may also be interwoven in the narrative by
means of flashbacks. There are stories in which something has already happened before the extract begins –
then it is impossible to name the beginning of the plot. But often it is possible to identify the exact event,
which serves as the beginning of the plot itself.
b)
Complication (развитие сюжета). It is a series of separate incidents, helping to unfold the
action, and might involve thoughts and feelings as well. Say exactly what events the complication includes.
c)
Climax (кульминация). It is a decisive moment on which the fate of the characters and the
final action depends. It is the highest point of an action in a story, the moment of the greatest intensity. Try
to indicate this moment. Sometimes climax is manifested in one phrase or even a powerful word.
There is also a subtype of climax – anticlimax. Anticlimax is an abrupt lapse from growing intensity
to triviality with the effect of disappointed expectation or deflated suspense. Usually the author gradually
leads the reader to the only logical outcome of the story – the climax. And when this expected outcome is
completely defeated (usually by one phrase at the end of the text), thus breaking the readers expectations, we
observe not climax, but anticlimax (e.g. “Art’s nothing,” snapped the old man. “I bought the Lathrop Gallery
last month...” in the text “Art for Heart’s Sake” by R.Goldberg).
d)
Denouement [dai´nu:maη] (развязка). It is the unwinding of the action. Usually it is a final
scene or events in a story or a play immediately following the climax, in which mysteries, confusions and
doubtful destinies are clarified, and which bring the action to an end.
Not all stories have a denouement. Some texts end right with the climax (or anticlimax), leaving it up
to the reader to judge what will be the outcome of the conflict.
The following questions will help you to sum up your observations of the plot:
What are the bare facts of the story?
What are the exposition, complication, climax and denouement?
Are the events of the plot ordered chronologically?
How does the story begin?
Has anything happened before the extract begins?
Is the action fast/slow moving?
Which episodes have been given the greatest emphasis?
Is the end clear-cut and conclusive or does it leave room for suggestion?
On what note does the story end?
8
Does the author speak in his own voice or does he present the events from the point of view of one of
the characters?
4. Divide the text into logically complete parts.
(It’s easier to analyse the shorter pieces, that’s why the junior students are supposed to divide the
text, while the senior students should work with the whole text, without dividing it.)
Look through the text under analysis once again and divide it into logically complete parts. Nearly
always the borders of the part coincide with the borders of paragraphs and a logically complete part may
comprise several paragraphs. Suggest the possible title for every part; choose a key-sentence in each part. A
key-sentence is a sentence, which embodies the main idea (the essence) of the part or discloses the chief
thought of the writer. Rarely there can be two key-sentences.
5. Give the detailed (rigorous) analysis of each logically complete part.
This point of the stylistic analysis is the most important for it completes and deepens all your
previous observations of the text. It helps to understand thoroughly all the peculiarities of literary
arrangement of the text and finally to grasp the author’s individual style and ideas and to extract the most
useful linguistic information.
Analyse each part according to the following scheme:1
a)
give a gist of the part. (What do we get to know from this part?);
b) describe the atmosphere created in the part.
What is the difference between the mood and atmosphere? Atmosphere is subtler and is observed in
the part of the text, while mood is characterization of the text in general. Roughly speaking, the general
mood of the text (see p.2.5) comprises the atmosphere of all its logically complete parts. You needn’t supply
the defined mood with the examples, while it is obligatory to show how the writer manages to create this or
that atmosphere of the logically complete part. Every logically complete part has its own peculiar
atmosphere, which differs from the atmosphere of other parts. That’s why if it isn’t the first part of the text,
compare its atmosphere with the previous one and say how it differs.
c) Say how the author manages to create this particular atmosphere.
The atmosphere is created by different lexical, syntactical and phonetic means. So the detailed
analysis of each logically complete part consists of bringing out and explaining the peculiarities and details
of 3 levels: 1) lexical, 2) syntactical and 3) phono – graphical.
Lexical level
Great attention must be paid to the vocabulary employed by the author, for you know that words are
the basic means of conveying a thought and consequently of creating the certain atmosphere. That is why
first of all analyse the author’s choice of words.
9
-
What functional style (formal, neutral, and colloquial) do the majority of words in the part
under analysis belong to? Prove it with examples. If the part presents a mixture of styles, indicate examples
of every style.
-
Search for groups of words, belonging to different spheres of men’s activity (educational,
juridical, military, medical, etc.). It’s especially important if the text bears a thematical character. Say how
these words contribute to the atmosphere. For example, the frequent usage of military words creates a tragic,
gloomy, war-like, nervous atmosphere, but if the same words are out–of–place, their usage in certain context
is likely to create a humorous or ironical atmosphere.
-
Point out synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, wrong or out–of–place usage of words,
polysemantic words used in their different meanings (the latter often create a humorous effect). Bring out
their effectiveness.
-
Pay attention to words, used in their emotive meaning, usually these are words with negative
or positive connotation. As a rule they are very suggestive, such as: nervously, happily, majestically,
gorgeous, coward hatred, etc.
-
Indicate the peculiar use of set expressions: clichés, proverbs, sayings, idioms, quotations and
allusions. Explain their usage.
-
Finally point out lexical expressive means and stylistic devices. Bring out their effectiveness.
Explain what the narration gains through them. Try to read between the lines and interpret the implication
(подтекст) considering these devices.
The following stylistic devices and expressive means should be considered here: metaphor,
metonymy, irony, zeugma, pun, epithets, oxymoron, simile, periphrasis, euphemisms, hyperbole (see
Supplement 1).
Remember that your aim is not to find and list as many stylistic devices as possible, but what is more
important – to interpret them, to explain what idea the author tried to bring to the mind of the reader by these
devices. And don’t tend to explain each device separately: remember about the convergence of stylistic
devices.
Syntactical level
Now you are to analyse the syntactical arrangement of logically complete part. The syntactical
arrangement is not less important for understanding the atmosphere of the part under study than choice of
words.
-
Pay attention to the paragraph building, length of paragraphs, and length of sentences in
paragraphs. Draw parallels between the seriousness of the theme and length of the sentences and paragraphs.
A series of short, unexpended sentences may contribute to creation of a nervous, restless atmosphere,
atmosphere of great intensity and holds the reader in suspense, a kind of nervous pulsation is created, as if a
regular beat in one’s mind and heart. Long, with plenty of subordinate clauses sentences may signify the
10
depth of the author’s idea, thought, conflict, problem, etc. And a chaotic arrangement of short and long
sentences may reflect the inner state of the character, his great hesitation, despair, chaos in his thoughts,
involved internal conflict of the character.
-
Analyse the compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement: indicate the cases of stylistic
inversion, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, framing, and catch repetition),
enumeration, antithesis, suspense. Explain what is gained through them. (see Supplement 1).
-
Investigate types of connection between parts of the sentences, between sentences
themselves. Here mind coordination, subordination, asyndeton, and polysyndeton. Try to notice some
specific features, such as: the cases, when the coordinating conjunction and expresses subordination and is
probably used to make each following statement stand out more clearly. On the other hand subordination
and coordination may be effectively expressed through participial phrases and constructions. A
comparatively wide range of relations is expressed by means of participial constructions. (“We roamed
about sweet Sonning for an hour or so, and then, it being too late to push on past Reading, we decided to go
back to one of the Shiplake islands, and put up there for the night.” Jerome K. Jerome). In case of asyndeton
it’s necessary to determine the difference between the omission of the conjunction as the norm of the
language, both literary and colloquial, and as stylistic devices used for special informative and aesthetic
purposes.
-
Explain the peculiar use of colloquial constructions: ellipsis, suppression, and aposiopesis,
questions in the narrative, uttered and unuttered (inner) represented speech.
Phono-graphical level
The stylistic use of phonemes and their graphical representation is very important for the creation of
expressive and emotive connotations.
Graphical expressive means serve to convey in the written form those emotions, which in the oral
type of speech are expressed by intonation and stress.
Any emphatic use of punctuation can reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker, and
consequently should attract your attention as well as any deliberate change of spelling of a word. (For
example: “I ref–use his money altogezzer”.)
In the analysis of phonetic side of a logically complete part try to find and interpret the following
phonetic stylistic devices: onomatopoeia (звукоподражание), alliteration (repetition of consonants),
assonance (repetition of similar vowels).(see Supplement 1)
Often the author resorts to such graphical means as italics, CAPITALIZATION, h-y-p-h-e-n-a-t-i-on, multiplication, as in the example of desperate appeal capitalization is used : “Help. Help. HELP!”
All graphical peculiarities are aimed at revealing and emphasizing the author’s viewpoint and at
giving additional information about the speaker such as: blurred, incoherent or careless pronunciation caused
by temporary or permanent factors (social, territorial, etc. status).
11
6. Make up the character sketches (раскройте образы героев)
Most writers attempt to create characters that strike us, not as stereotypes, but as unique individuals.
Characters are called round if they are complex and develop or change in the course of the story as for
example, the character of Atticus Finch in H. Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird”. Flat characters are usually one
– sided as, for example, the character of Mayella Ewell in H. Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” or the character
of aunt in “The Lumber-Room” by H. Munro. Round and flat characters have different functions in the
conflict of the story.
The conflict may be external, which is between human beings or between man and the environment
(individual against nature, individual against the established order, values in the society). The internal
conflict takes place in the mind, here the character is torn between opposing features of his personality.
Note!
The Russian word «герой» has English equivalents “character” or “personage”, and «главный
герой» – “hero” or “protagonist”, or “central (main, principal) character” (for example, It’s clear that the
author wants us to like his young hero (protagonist). The author’s portrayal of the central characters (not
main heroes!) is quite life – like). The Russian word combination «второстепенные герои» is translated as
“minor characters (personages)”.
You’d better begin making character sketches with separating the main characters of the text from
the minor ones. Start with the character sketches of the main personages because minor characters often
serve to form certain background (фон) for the better and deeper understanding of the main ones. That’s
why sometimes it is not necessary to characterize the minor personages.
Note!
Герои произведения могут подразделяться на heroes и villains, что примерно соответствует
такому же делению в русском языке на положительных и отрицательных героев. В таком же
значении могут противопоставляться good (virtuous) and bad (evil) characters, но не positive and
negative characters, хотя можно говорить о positive and negative traits (features) of characters.
The description of the different aspects (physical, moral, social, etc.) of a character is known as
characterization. Each personage should be analysed according to the method of characterization.
Direct characterization is when the author himself or another personage defines the character for the
reader by describing or explaining it, thus offering his own interpretation of the personage. Thus, this
method suggests the author’s subjective idea of the personage.
Indirect characterization is when the author shows the character in action and leaves it to the reader
to judge the character: a) through his actions, deeds, conversations, thoughts; b) by what they say and in
what manner they speak; c) by their mode of behaviour and way of thinking.
When characterizing a personage make your specific interpretation of his personality. With what
main problem is the personage faced? Is it an external or internal conflict and how does he manage to
overcome the problems? Describing personages you may need the following adjectives: sad, sinister,
12
pathetic, vulnerable, reliable, stupid, cruel, awkward, (un) trustworthy, honest, unpleasant, mean, (in)
sensitive, clever, romantic, generous, grateful, compassionate, practical, tender, cynical, sentimental, kind,
shallow, (un) educated, rude, (in) sincere, egocentric, reasonable, reserved, well – bred, frank, modest, shy,
ill – bred, ambitious, pompous, obstinate, selfish, stingy, etc.
Finally draw a conclusion about author’s attitude towards the personage. Say if the author
sympathizes with the personage or not, if he makes the reader like the personage or not. If possible point out
stylistic devices aimed at delineating the personage.
The following questions will help you to organize your thoughts more logically and compactly:
What are the characters’ names and what do they look like?
Does this have any significance?
Are the characters round or flat?
Does the narrator employ interior monologue to render the thoughts and feelings of the characters?
Are the characters credible? Do they act consistently? If not, why not? With what main problem is the
protagonist faced? Is it a conflict with another individual? With society? Within himself? In the course of
the story do the characters change as a result of their experience? Does the narrator sympathize with the
character? Remains aloof and detached?
You may find the following phrases useful when giving character sketches
- the author endows (invests) the hero - автор наделяет героя следующими
(the character) with the following traits чертами…
(features, characteristics)…
- to bring in (introduce) a lot of (very few) characters.
вводить
много
(очень
мало)
персонажей.
- to draw (portray) character truthfully -
рисовать
(писать)
(faithfully), with convincing strokes.
правдоподобно, убедительно.
- to represent (present, depict, portray).
- изображать.
образ
- a truthful, life – like, etc. representation - правдивое, жизненное изображение
(presentation, depiction, portrayal) of a героя.
character.
- fidelity of representation is achieved -
правдивость
изображения
through…
достигается при помощи…
- the character is merely sketched in…
- образ дан схематично.
7. Think what is more important in the text under analysis: plot development or character
drawing.
13
This point should follow point 3 and 6, when both the plot and the characters are analysed. Usually
this point brings on a heated discussion, for so many men, so many minds.
If you are of two minds, try to think of the conflict the main character faces. Often if it is the internal
conflict, the author’s aim is to show the development of personality, how a man behaves in a difficult
situation, how he is influenced by the surrounding, how his way of thinking or mode of behaviour change
with the development of events. The events themselves are not of great importance, but the character
drawing really is. Such texts, as a rule, have a psychological slant, the author resorts to indirect method of
characterization. The plot is trivial and banal in itself.
When
the
characters
are
flat,
directly
characterized, there is nothing to speak of personalities, but the sequence of events is unusually involved,
complicated, then, probably, the plot is of greater importance (but it is not a rule). In fact in such texts the
situation may be usual, trivial, but the events unfold in a strange, unusual way and the outcome is not
predictable. But there are texts in which both plot development and character drawing are equally important.
8. Summarize all your comments.
This point of stylistic analysis of the text is very important for you are supposed to recollect all your
observations and reach the aim of your hard work on the text – to share your views on the author’s style.
For a moment imagine you are a literary critic and speak on your personal perception of the author’s
individual style, his manner of writing. Comment on the language peculiarities, which make up the essential
properties of the individual style of the author. Does the story abound in tropes or does the narrator use them
sparingly?
And, to crown it all, say what the impact (воздействие) of the text is. What is it due to?
Discuss the literary properties of the story.
Here the following phrases will help you:
-
a
vivid
(graphic)
description
something;
of - яркое описание чего – либо (not
bright);
- to bring out an idea (a point, a mood, feelings, etc.) more clearly;
раскрыть
(показать)
мысль
(настроение, чувства и т.п.) более
полно;
- to abandon (reject) the traditional form - отказаться от традиционной формы
of narrative (technique, etc.);
повествования(техники и т.п.);
- the story (scene) is set in …; the scene - действие происходит в …;
is laid in …;
- distinctive traits, features;
- отличительные характерные черты;
- the probability of incident, of historical - правдоподобие сюжетных линий
setting (background), etc.;
(происшествий),
исторической
обстановки и т.п.;
14
- the text is (a little) lacking in action;
- в тексте (немного) не хватает
динамизма;
- as the plot progresses (goes on)/ as the - по мере того, как развивается
действие;
story unfolds;
- the boldness (originality) of (the author’s) concept (conception);
смелость\
оригинальность
идеи
(замысла);
- an interesting (bold, original) treatment - интересная (смелая, оригинальная)
трактовка (интересное и т.д. решение)
of the subject;
темы;
- the speech (language) of the characters;
- речевая характеристика героев;
- the author has a feeling for (a scene of) - автор обладает чувством (чего –
…;
либо);
- the story is written in the first person; it - рассказ написан от первого лица;
is (a) first – person narration;
- автор – рассказчик;
- the narrator;
-
stock
(trite,
expressions,
hackneyed)
metaphors,
phrases, - шаблонные (избитые, “заезженные”)
similes, фразы,
выражения,
метафоры,
сравнения, слова;
comparisons, words;
-a clear, lively, swift, free – flown, -
ясное,
живое,
динамичное,
exciting narrative;
свободное, увлекательное изложение;
- the writing (language) is vivid (crisp);
- манера письма (язык) живая (живой);
- to be described vividly, with infinite - быть описанным живо, чрезвычайно,
искусно, с тонкой иронией и т.п.;
skill, with subtle irony, etc.;
- the story has brilliant wit, sparkling -
рассказ
написан
остроумно,
(glittering) humour;
блеском, с искрящимся юмором;
- the author’s power (gift) of observation;
- наблюдательность автора;
с
- the author has a fluent pen; the author - автор пишет легко;
writes with facility;
-
the
story
has
a
happy,
tragic, -
unexpected, “forced” ending;
конец
рассказа
трагичный,
счастливый,
неожиданный,
“натянутый”;
Here are some questions and tasks for self – control:
After you are through with all points of the stylistic analysis of the text, make sure that you are able
to answer the following questions and can do the tasks without hesitation.
1.
What is the time and setting of the text (story)?
15
2.
What is the essential plot of the story?
3.
What is the central idea of the text?
4.
What do you think of the author’s ability to draw character? Write a character-study of the
main persons in the text.
5.
What literary devices does the author use to bring out his point more clearly?
6.
Do you think the narrative would gain or lose if it were (not) written in the first person?
7.
Give the summary of the text/ story.
8.
What emotions are aroused in the reader as the story unfolds?
9.
Do you think that the ending is justifiable? Does it spring naturally from the facts of the story,
or is it “forced”?
10.
What is the compositional structure of the text/ story?
11.
Sum up your opinion of the text/story.
If you feel difficult or uncertain about some questions, go back to necessary points of this brochure.
In case all the questions and tasks come easy to you, one can be sure you have made a good job of
the stylistic analysis of the text and you are ready for fruitful discussion in your group.
4. Примерный анализ отрывка из художественного произведения Дж. Голсуорси “To let”
John Galsworthy (Born 1867 - Died 1933)
TO LET
(1922)
This novel is the last volume of the Forsyte Saga. It marks both the end of the first, stage in the
development of the Forsytes and the beginning of the second, post-war stage in the chronicle of their doings.
That final stage is the subject of Galsworthy's second trilogy, the Modern Comedy, where the younger
generation of the Forsytes are depicted against the background of England's post-war decay. In the following
extract the novelist holds up to ridicule the decadence of modern bourgeois art. On this occasion he puts his
ideas into the mouth of Soames Forsyte, formerly satirized as the "man of property". Soames's scornful
bewilderment at sight of Expressionist paintings renders the feelings of the novelist himself.
CHAPTER I
Encounter
Arriving at the Gallery оff Cork Street, however, he paid his shilling, picked up a catalogue, and
entered. Some ten persons were prowling round. Soames took steps and came on what looked to him like a
lamp-post bent by collision with a motor omnibus. It was advanced some three paces from the wall, and was
described in his catalogue as "Jupiter". He examined it with curiosity, having recently turned some of his
attention to sculpture. "If that's Jupiter," he thought, "I wonder what Juno's like." And suddenly he saw her,
16
opposite. She appeared to him like nothing so much as a pump with two handles, lightly clad in snow. He
was still gazing at her, when two of the prowlers halted on his left. "Epatant!” he beard one say.
"Jargon!" growled Soames to himself.
The other boyish voice replied:
"Missed it, old bean; he's pulling your leg. When Jove and Juno created he them, he was saying: 'I'll
sec how much these fools will swallow.' And they've lapped up the lot." "You young duffer! Vospovitch is
an innovator. Don't yon see that lie's brought satire into sculpture? The future of plastic art, of music,
painting, and even architecture, has set in satiric. It was bound to. People are tired — the bottom's tumbled
out of sentiment."
"Well, I'm quite equal to taking a little interest in beauty. I was through the War. You've dropped
your handkerchief, sir."
Soames saw a handkerchief held out in front of him. He took it with some natural suspicion, and
approached it to his nose. It had the right scent — of distant Eau dc Cologne — and his initials in a corner.
Slightly reassured, he raised his eyes to the young man's face. It had rather fawn-like ears, a laughing mouth,
with half a toothbrush growing out of it on each side, and small lively eyes above a normally dressed
appearance.
"Thank you," he said; and moved by a sort of irritation, added:
"Glad to hear you like beauty; that's rare, nowadays."
"I dote on it," said the young man; "but you and I are the last of the old guard, sir."
Soames smiled.
"If you really care for pictures," he said, "here's my card. I can show you some quite good ones any
Sunday, if you're down the river and care to look in."
"Awfully nice of you, sir. I'll drop in like a bird. My name's Mont — Michael." And he took off his
hat.
Soames, already regretting his impulse, raised his own slightly in response, with a downward look at
the young man's companion, who had a purple tie, dreadful little sluglike whiskers, and a scornful look — as
if he were a poet!
It was the first indiscretion he had committed for so long that he went and sat down in an alcove.
What had possessed him to give his card to a rackety young fellow, who went about with a thing like that?
And Fleur, always at the back of his thoughts, started out like a filigree figure from a clock when the hour
strikes. On the screen opposite the alcove was a large canvas with a great many square tomato-coloured
blobs on it, and nothing else, so far as Soames could see from where he sat. He looked at his catalogue: "No.
32 - 'The Future Town' — Paul Post." "I suppose that's satiric too," he thought. "What a thing!" But his
second impulse was more cautious. It did not do to condemn hurriedly. There had been those stripey, streaky
creations of Monet's, which had turned out. such trumps; and then the stippled school, and Gauguin. Why,
oven since the Post-Impressionists there had been one or two painters not to be sneezed at. During the thirty17
eight years of his connoisseur's life, indeed, he had marked so many "movements", seen the tides of taste
and technique so ebb and flow, that there was money to be made out of every change of fashion. This too
might quite well he a case where one must subdue primordial instinct, or lose the market. He got up and
stood before the picture, trying hard to see it with the eyes of other people. Above the tomato blobs was
what he took to be a sunset, till some оnе passing said: "He's got the airplanes wonderfully, don't you think!"
Below the tomato blobs was a band of white vertical black stripes, to which he could assign no meaning
whatever till some one else came by, murmuring: "What expression he gets with his foreground!"
Expression? Of what? Soames went back to his seat. The thing was "rich", as his father would have said, and
wouldn’t give a damn for it! Expression! Ah! they wore all Expressionists now, he had heard, on the
Continent. So it was coming here too, was it? He remembered the first wave of influenza in 1887 — or 8 hatched in China, so they said. He wondered where this — this Expressionism—had been hatched. The
thing was a regular disease!
(J. Galsworthy. To Let, Foreign Languages Publishing House. Moscow, 1952, pp. 48-50)
COMMENTS
In this description of Soamcs's impressions of a gallery stocked with pieces of modern art
Galsworthy's realism is displayed to great advantage. Within a very few pages the reader gets a vivid notion
not only of the new school in painting, but also of the man who is so indignant with it. On the one hand his
disgust and his perplexity throw light on the fictitious masterpieces and their false standards of beauty; on
the other hand those masterpieces become an efficient means of characterizing Soames himself. The same
end is served by the contrast between the soundness of his judgment and the flightiness, the restlessness of
those of the new generation who delight in such works of art. Abundance of thought and feeling in a short
passage where nothing much actually happens, dislike of emphasis and pathos is an important feature of
Galsworthy's quiet and restrained art.
His intense contempt for the mannerisms of modern painting is not poured out either in withering
sarcasm or in grotesque exaggeration, but finds an outlet, in a tone of matter-of-fact irony. The supposed
statues of Jupiter and Juno arc to Soames just "a lamp-post bent by collision with a motor omnibus" and "a
pump with two handles" respectively. Seen through the eyes of hard common-sense, brought down to the
crudest elements, these statues appear particularly ridiculous.
The same process of reducing a complex whole — a pretentious picture of "The Future Town" - to a
number of primitive daubs serves to expose the futility of Expressionist art. However hard Soames tries, he
can sec nothing but "a great many square tomato-coloured blobs" and "a band of white with vertical black
stripes". The very sound of the word "blob", imitating the dripping of some liquid, is derogatory here and
suggests that the paint was dropped on the canvas anyhow. This plain, sensible view is comically opposed to
the enthusiasm of other and younger spectators who seem to recognize a wonderful picture of airplanes in
the red blobs and a peculiar "expression" in the black and white stripes. The false pretences of the picture
bearing the pompous name of "The Future Town" are the more clearly revealed as Soames anxiously does
18
his best to go abreast of the times and make his taste sufficiently up to date. The harder the beholder's efforts
to appreciate, the clearer the painter's failure to succeed. Soames's business instincts are well expressed in
his fear to misunderstand the exhibits and to miss an opportunity of profit. Thus, oven when Galsworthy
does make a mouthpiece of his hero, the latter's utterances, however close they come to the author's
opinions, are appropriate to the personality of the speaker and come convincing from his lips. It is
Galsworthy himself who has no respect for Expressionism, but Soames voices that feeling in a way
peculiarly Forsytean: he is afraid to trust his eminently healthy taste, his own sense of beauty, for, as he
reminds himself, "it did not do to condemn hurriedly. There had been those stripey, streaky creations of
Monet's..."
These words make part of a prolonged inner monologue, which in the later volumes of the Forsyte
Saga and in the whole of the Modern Comedy becomes Galsworthy's favourite method of characterization.
The inner speech of the hero is indissolubly linked with the author's comments, so much so, really, that
when speaking of Soames, for example, Galsworthy resorts to expressions entirely suitable to Soames ("His
second impulse was more cautious", "He remembered the first wave of influenza in 1887 — or 8 — hatched
in China, so they said").
With Galsworthy the inner monologue is different from what it is, say, in Meredith's books. For one
thing, the author of the Forsyte Saga uses it much more often. For another thing, he interferes with his
comments much less than his predecessor. Lastly, the language of the monologues (particularly when they
are Soamcs's) is much more concise and laconic, utterly devoid of sentiment. It is quite free of abstract
terms, and is exceedingly terse, practical and full of idiomatic constructions commonly used in everyday
speech ("painters not to be sneezed at", "they had turned out such trumps" etc.). Soames the businessman
makes himself heard when in his meditations on art practical considerations come to the top: "there was
money to be made out of every change of fashion", "lose the market" and others. Even his metaphors, when
they put in an appearance, are few and definitely "low" - as, for instance, the comparison of Expressionism
to influenza hatched in China: "He wondered where this — this Expressionism — had been hatched. The
thing was a regular disease!" These metaphors are born out of Soames's disgust for what he considers a
corruption of art and are therefore significant of his attitude towards painting: they prove that Soames had
aesthetic criteria of his own and was capable of disinterested evaluation.
Besides the inner monologue and characterization through surroundings, Galsworthy, ever
resourceful in his search for the realistic approach, makes ample use of the dialogue as an efficient means to
let his characters speak fur themselves without the author's interference. In the present excerpt Soames
unexpectedly finds himself involved in a talk with young strangers, one of whom is an advocate of
"extreme" innovation of art. Their speech might be described as a curious combination of vulgar
colloquialisms ("duffer", "lo lap up", "the bottom's tumbled out of sentiment") with bookish and learned
phraseology ("innovator", "plastic art", "to bring satire into sculpture), of English and French slang ("old
bean", "to pull somebody's leg", "épatant") with solemn parody of Biblical constructions ("Jove and Juno
19
created he them"). Exaggeration ( "awfully nice of you", "I dote on it [beauty]") goes hand in hand with
understatement ("I'm quite equal to taking a little interest in beauty").
Galsworthy perfectly realized, — indeed, lie was one of the first writers to do so, — that the flippant
manner and the crude speech of post-war young people was the result of a severe shock of disillusionment:
they wore so disappointed with those fine words that used to go with a fine show of public feeling that for
them "the bottom had tumbled out of sentiment", and satire both in art and in mode of talk seemed to be the
only possible alternative.
Their manner of speaking, cynical, affectedly coarse, substituting descriptive slangy catchwords for
the proper names of things, is strongly contrasted to Soames's formal, plain speech, with his habit of giving
things their common standard meanings and never saying more than is strictly necessary. The contrast in
manner and speech habits is of great importance in lending vitality to both interlocutors, in stressing the
immense difference between the younger men's irresponsibility and rootlessness and Soames's resolute
clinging to property, his dogged hold on life. As a follower of the realistic tradition, Galsworthy never fails
in attaching special significance to the tiniest details: Soames approaches his handkerchief, that Michael has
picked up for him, to his nose to make sure it is really his — with that suspicionsness that is so characteristic
of' the Forsytes. He raises his hat only slightly in parting from young Mont and looks downward at his
companion, for he is naturally distrustful of new acquaintances and inclined to be no more than coldly polite
(raising his hat ever so little) and supercilious — in looking down upon anybody whom he does not
recognize as his equal and half expects to be troublesome. All these little things are very suggestive of that
fear of giving oneself away that Galsworthy elsewhere described as a feature by which it is as easy to tell a
Forsyte as by his sense of property.
Galsworthy's realism does not only lie in his capacity for making his hero part and parcel of his
surroundings and convincing the reader of his typicality: ho is a fine artist in reproducing the individual
workings of his characters' minds. Soames, the man of property, is also a man of deep and lasting feelings.
Such is his devotion to his daughter Fleur, who was "always at the back of his thoughts" and "started out like
a filigree figure from a clock when the hour strikes". Incidentally, this dainty simile, so utterly unlike the
matter-of-factness that characterizes the usual reproduction of Soames's prosaic mind, is expressive of
thepoetic colouring that Galsworthy introduces to render the strength
of the affection Soames has for
Fleur.
As a general rule, the novelist, though following in the tracks of classical realists, breaks away from
the literary polish, the fine descriptive style that was kept up to the very end of the 19th century. At the same
time as Shaw, Wells and Bennett, Galsworthy starts a new tradition of bringing the language of literature (in
the author's speech, no less than in that of the personages) close to the language of real life. He does away
with the elaborate syntax of 19th century prose and cultivates short, somewhat abrupt sentences, true to the
rhythm and the intonation of the spoken language and full of low colloquialisms and even slang.
20
SUPPLEMENT I
Guide to Stylistic Devices and expressive means
In linguistics there are different terms to denote those particular means by which a writer obtains his
effect. Expressive means, stylistic means, stylistic devices and other terms. For our purposes it’s necessary
to make a distinction between expressive means and stylistic devises.
The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of
word-building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, which function in the language for
emotional or logical intensification of utterance. Some of them are normalized, and good dictionaries label
them as intensifiers. In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms. The most powerful
expressive means of any language are phonetic. The human voice can indicate subtle nuances of meaning
that no other means can attain. Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling, drawling out certain syllables,
whispering, a sing-song manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any
other means of intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically.
Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Simple instead of the Past Simple
must be mentioned first (Historical Present). In describing some past events the author uses the present
tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisatoin of what was going on.
The use of shall in the second and third person may also be regarded as an expressive means.
Compare the following synonymous statements and you will not fail to observe the intensifying element in
the sentence with shall (which in such cases always gets emphatic stress).
He shall do it (=I shall make him do it).
He has to do it (=It is necessary for him to do it).
Among word-building means we find a great many forms which serve to make the utterance more
expressive and fresh or to intensify it. The diminutive suffixes as –y(ie), -let, e.g. dear, dearie, stream,
streamlet, add ad some emotional colouring to the words. We may also refer to what are called neologisms
and nonce-words formed with non-productive suffixes or with Greek roots, as: mistressmanship,
cleanorama, walkathon.
At the lexical level there are a great many words which due to their inner expressiveness, constitute a
special layer. These are words with emotive meaning only, like interjections, words which have both
referential and emotive meaning, like some of the qualitative adjectives; words which still retain a twofold
meaning; or words belonging to special group of literary English or of non-standard English (poetic, archaic,
slang, vulgar, etc.) and some other groups. The expressive power of these words can not be doubted,
especially when they are compared with the neutral vocabulary.
The same can be said of the set expressions of the language. Proverbs and sayings as well as catchwords form a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech more emphatic, mainly
from the emotional point of view. Their use in every-day speech can hardly be overestimated. Some of these
21
proverbs and sayings are so well-known that their use in the process of communication passes almost
unobserved; others are rare and therefore catch the attention of the reader or the listener.
Here is an example of a proverb used by Dickens in “Dombey and Son” to make up a simile.
“As the last straw breaks laden camel’s back, this piece of underground information crushed the
sinking spirits of Mr. Dombey.”
In every-day speech you can hear such phrases as “Well, it will only add fuel to the fire”, which can
easily be replaced by synonymous neutral expressions, like “It will only make the situation worse.”
Finally at the syntactical level there are many constructions which, being set against synonymous
ones will reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis.
Let us compare the following pairs of structures:
“I have never seen such a film.” “Never have I seen such a film”
“Mr. Smith came in first.” “It was Mr. Smith who came in first.”
The second structure in each pair contains emphatic elements. They cause intensification of the
utterance: in the first case emotional in character, in the second, logical.
In the English language there are many syntactical patterns which serve to intensify emotional
quality (e.g. He is a brute of a man, is John.
Isn’t she cute!
Fool that he was! ).
Lexical Stylistic Devices
Metaphor (метафора) – transference of names based on the associated likeness between two
objects. It is an implicit comparison between object A and object B. The words that make the comparison
explicit – like, as or as if/ as though – are not there; a metaphor takes the form “A” is “B”. Metaphor – the
most important and widespread figure of speech, in which one thing, idea or action is referred to by a word
or expression normally denoting another thing, idea or action, so as to suggest some common quality shared
by the two. In metaphor, this resemblance is assumed as an imaginary identity rather than directly stated as a
comparison: referring to a man as that pig or saying he is a pig is metaphorical, whereas he is like a pig is a
simile. A metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. Structurally, metaphor can be simple or
sustained (развернутая). A simple metaphor is expressed in one word or a word combination having
figurative meaning on the whole. When a group of metaphors is clustered around the same central image to
make it more vivid and complete, we speak of a sustained metaphor.
Examples:
“The dust danced and was golden” (a simple metaphor).
“Money burns a hole in my pocket.” (a simple metaphor).
“The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees… ” (a simple metaphor)
22
“As he spoke, so lightly, tapping the end of his cigarette against the ash-tray, she felt the strange
beast that had slumbered so long within her bosom stir, stretch itself, yawn, prick up its ears, and suddenly
bound to its feet and fix its long hungry stare upon those far away places.” (a sustained metaphor).
“The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he
resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering
reiterations, so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing.” (a sustained metaphor).
When likeness is observed between inanimate objects and human beings, we speak of
personification (олицетворение).
Example:
“The face of London was, now strangely altered… the voice of Mourning was heard in every street.”
Metonymy (метонимия) reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and thus based
on their contiguity (nearness). Since the types of relations between two objects can be finally limited, they
are observed again and again, and metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one’s bread; to live by the pen; to
keep one’s mouth shut, etc.). Most cases of original metonymy presenting relations between a part and the
whole or a representative of the class instead of the class and vice versa are known as synecdoche
(синекдоха). Metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals. (“…She was a pale and fresh
eighteen.”)
Examples:
“She saw around her, clustered about the white tables, multitudes of violently red lips, powdered
cheeks, cold, hard eyes, self-possessed arrogant faces, and insolent bosoms.” (synecdoche)
The types of relations between the objects can be grouped in the following way:
a)
the name of a symbol instead of the thing it symbolizes: “crown, throne ” instead of “the
King’s power”; “crown of laurel” instead of “Gloria.”
e.g., “The leaves dropped off his imaginary crown of laurel; he turned to the gate, loaned against it,
and cried bitterly.”
b) The name of an instrument instead of the action it performs:
e.g. “Give every man ear and few thy voice.”
c) Consequence instead of cause:
e.g. “He (fish) desperately takes the death (the fishing hook)”
d)
The container instead of the thing contained:
e.g. “The hall applauded.”
“She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond of the bottle.”
Irony (ирония) is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same context, so as to
give an apparently straightforward statement or event a very different significance, which is sustained in oral
speech by intonation. Irony can be realized also through the medium of situation, which, in written speech
23
may extend as far as a paragraph, chapter or even the whole book. Bitter, socially or politically aimed irony
is referred to as sarcasm (сарказм).
Examples:
“Contentedly Sam Clark drove off, in the heavy traffic of three Fords …” (ирония)
“Even at this affair, which brought out the young smart set, the hunting squire set, the respectable
intellectual set, they sat up with gaiety as with a corpse.” (ирония)
“It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.” (ирония)
Hyperbole (гипербола) is a deliberate exaggeration of some quantity, quality, size, etc., big though
it might be even without exaggeration. If it is smallness that is being overrated (a woman of pocket size), we
speak of understatement (преуменьшение), which works on identical principles but in opposite directions
with hyperbole proper.
Examples:
“There were about twenty people at the party, most of whom I hadn’t met before. The girls were
dressed to kill.” (гипербола)
“… he was all sparkle and glitter in the box at the Opera.” (гипербола)
“… her eyes were open, but only just. Don’t move the tiniest part of an inch.” (преуменьшение)
“I hope, Cecily, I shall not offend you if I state quite frankly and openly that you seem to me to be in
every way the visible personification of absolute perfection.” (гипербола)
Epithet (эпитет) - an adjective or adjectival phrase used to define a characteristic quality or attribute
of some person or thing. It expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing and imaginary. This stylistic
device is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even
sentence. It points out some of the properties of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception
and evaluation of these features.
Sometimes an adverbial can serve as an epithet.
Examples:
a lipsticky smile; a silvery laugh; to smile cuttingly.
“I closed my eyes, smelling the goodness of her sweat and the sunshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell
of her lavender-water.”
“The flowery Spring leads sunny Summer,
And yellow Autumn presses near,
Then in its turn comes gloomy Winter,
Till smiling Spring appear.” (R. Burns)
Oxymoron (оксиморон) joins two antonymous or contradictory words into one syntagm, most
frequently attributive (adoring hatred) or adverbial (shouted silently) less frequently of other patterns
(doomed to liberty).
Examples:
24
“They looked courteous curses at me.”
“Welcome to Reno, the biggest little town in the world.”
“I got down off that stool and walked to the door in a silence that was as loud as ton of coal going
down a chute.”
Zeugma (зевгма) – use of a word in the same grammatical relation to two adjacent words in the
context, one metaphorical and the other literal in sense. Literally a “yoking”, zeugma is usually achieved by
a verb or preposition with two objects (but not always).
Examples:
“He struck off his pension and his head together.”
“And the boys took their places and their books.”
“Have you been seeing any spirits?” inquired the old gentleman. “Or taking any?” added Bob Allen.
“Sally,” said Mr. Bently in a voice almost as low as his intentions, “let’s go out to the kitchen.”
Pun (каламбур) – the humorous or ludicrous use of a word in more then one sense; a play on words.
Examples:
Alg.: … Besides, your name isn’t Jack at all; it’s Ernest.
Jack..: It isn’t Ernest; it’s Jack.
Alg.: You have always told me it was Ernest. I have introduced you to everyone as Ernest. You look
as if your name was Ernest. You’re the most earnest-looking person I ever saw in my life. It is perfectly
absurd your saying that your name isn’t Ernest. (O.Wilde)
(The homophones Ernest and earnest are interplayed.)
When I am dead, I hope it may be said:
“His sins were scarlet, but his books were read.”(H. Belloc)
(Here the pun is based on two homophones, read and red.)
“It was toward evening, and I saw him on my way out to dinner. He was arriving on a taxi; the driver
helped him totter into the hose with a load of suitcases. That gave me something to chew on: by Sunday my
jaws were quite tired.” (T.Capote)
(Here the two meanings of a polysemantic word to chew are the basis of pun. One is indirect – to
think over, another is literal which is made vivid through the word jaws. )
Lexico-Syntactical Stylistic Devices
Simile (сравнение) is an explicit comparison between object A and object B, in the form “A is like
B” or “A is as … (adjective) as B”. There must be some similarity or point of comparison between A and B.
Similes have formed elements in their structure: connective words; like, as, such as, as if, seem.
Example: “O, my Love’s like a red red rose
That’s newly sprung in June.” (R. Burns)
Object A is the lover, – “my Love”. Object B is the “red red rose”. The point of comparison is beauty
and freshness. Notice that in this simile we do not consider other qualities of a rose – it has thorns, it dies
25
every year (although we may consider them in other similes). Ordinary comparison and simile must not be
confused. Comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of
establishing the degree of their sameness or difference. To use a simile is to characterize one object by
bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things. Compare: She
is as tall as her sister (comparison) and She is as a fox (simile).
As you see, simile has the following elements: TENOR, VEHICLE, and GROUND, where tenor is
the object compared, vehicle is the object compared to, and ground is the basis of comparison.
Examples: “With the quickness of a long cat, (she) climbed up into the nest of cool-bladed foliage.”
(Lawrence)
(Here the tenor is she, the vehicle is cat, and the ground is cat’s quality - quickness.)
“Huddled in her grey fur against the sofa cushions, she had a strange resemblance to a captive
owl.”(Galsworthy)
We should mention that many examples had lost their stylistic value and became set expressions
which do not bear any expressiveness, such as: to blush like a peony, fat as a pig, blind as a bat, to drink like
a fish, bright as a button, to fit like a glove, to smoke like a chimney, and so forth.
Antithesis (антитеза, противопоставление), a variety of parallelism, is a structure consisting of two
steps, the lexical meanings of which are opposite to each other. The steps may be presented by morphemes,
which brings forth morphological antithesis (underpaid and overworked), by antonyms (or contextual
antonyms), by completed statements or pictures semantically opposite to one another.
Examples:
“Three bold and experienced men – cool, confident and dry when they began, white, quivering and
wet when they finished… (R. Kipling)
“In marriage the upkeep of woman is often the downfall of man.” (Y. Esar)
“His feet were high; his lessons were light …” (O.Henry)
Litotes (литота) – a figure of speech by which an affirmation is made indirectly by denying its
opposite, usually with the effect of understatement. It presupposes double negation; one – through the
negative particle no or not; the other – through: a) a word with a negative affix or prefix (not hopeless); b) a
word with negative or derogatory meaning (not a coward); c) a negative construction (not without taste); d)
an adjective or adverb preceded by too (not too awful). Litotes conveys the doubts of the speaker concerning
the exact characteristics of the object.
Следует разграничить ЛИТОТУ и разновидность гиперболы, выражающей “преувеличение
незначительности”,
ПРЕУМЕНЬШЕНИЕ.
Литота
отличается
от
гиперболы
не
только
противоположным значением, но и самой своей техникой. Эта последняя состоит в частичном
отрицании какого-либо признака, приписываемого предмету речи. Этим достигается стилистический
эффект подчеркнутой сдержанности выражения мысли, а иногда неполноты указываемого признака.
Examples:
26
“The idea was not totally erroneous. The thought did not displease me.” (I. Murdoch)
“She writes rather too often.”(Th.Hardy)
“The face wasn’t a bad one. It had what they called charm.”(Galsworthy)
“With patience, which most other princes would have considered as degrading, and not without a
sense of amusement, the Monarch of France waited till his life-guardsman had satisfied the keenness of a
youthful appetite.”(W.Scott)
Periphrasis (перифраз) is renaming of an object using a roundabout form of expression instead of
naming it directly in a single word or phrase; that is of using a more or less complicated syntactical
structure, instead of a word. Periphrasis is often used in euphemisms like passed away for “died”.
Examples:
“Bill went with him and they returned with a tray of glasses, siphons and other necessaries of life.”
(A. Christie)
“The nose was anything but Grecian – that was a certainty, for it pointed to heaven.”(D. du Maurier)
“Deila was studying under Rosenstock – you know his repute as a disturber of the piano keys (= a
pianist).”(O.Henry)
Climax (нарастание) – a figure of speech in which a sequence of terms is linked by chain-like
repetition through three or more steps, representing a row of relative synonyms placed in the ascending
order of importance.
Examples:
“It was a mistake … a blunder … lunacy …” (W. Deeping)
“I’ll smash you. I’ll crumble you, I’ll powder you. Go to the devil!” (Ch. Dickens)
“I am sorry, I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry.”(Chesterton)
“…Golden Dreams” – he hung lovingly on the words – “a very sweet story, singularly sweet; in fact,
madam, the critics are saying it is the sweetest thing that Mr. Slush has done.”(Leacock)
Anticlimax (разрядка) – when climax is suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought
which defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized
idea.
Example:
“Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything – except the
obvious.” (O. Wilde)
“Harris never “weeps, he knows not why.” If Harris’s eyes fill with tears, you can bet it is because
Harris has been eating raw onions… ”(Jerome K. Jerome)
Syntactical Stylistic Devices
Inversion (инверсия) deals with the displacement of the predicate or with the displacement of
secondary members of the sentence and their shift into the front, final or an unusual position in the sentence;
it is a device of style which gives liveliness and sometimes vigor to the sentence.
27
Examples:
“Women are not made for attack. Wait they must.” (J. Conrad)
“Calm and quiet below me in the sun and shade lay the old house…” (Ch. Dickens)
“Down came the storm and smote again
The vessel in its strength.”(J. Longfellow)
Apokoinu construction (конструкция апокойну) – a blend of two clauses into one, which is
achieved at the expense of the omission of the connecting word. The main stylistic function is to emphasize
the irregular, careless or uneducated character of the speech of personage.
Examples:
“It was I was father to you.” (S. Beckett)
“There was a whisper in my family that it was love drove him out, and, not love of the wife he
married.” (J. Steinbeck)
Repetition (повтор) – a repetition of the same word or phrase with the view of expressiveness.
There are several types of repetition. If we take a and b for the repeated unit, it’s possible to reflect the
sentence structure in the following schemes:
a)
ordinary repetition offers no fixed place for the repeated unit – aa , a…, a a…, …aaa….
b)
anaphora: a…,a…,a…,a… .
c)
epiphora: …a, …a, …a, …a.
d)
framing: a…a.
e)
anadiplosis (catch repetition): …a, a… .
f)
chain repetition; …a, a…b, b…c, c…d.
We shouldn’t forget morphological repetition when a morpheme is repeated (mainly to achieve
humorous effect).
Examples:
“Failure meant poverty, poverty, meant squalor, squalor led, in the final stages, to the smells and
stagnation of B. Inn Alley.” (D. du Maurier)
(It is a chain repetition.)
“If you have anything to say, say it, say it.”(Ch. Dickens)
(It is an ordinary repetition.)
“He ran away from the battle. He was an ordinary human being that didn’t want to kill or be killed,
so he ran away from the battle.”(St. Heim)
(It is phraming.)
“She knew of their existence by hundreds and thousands. She knew what results in work a given
number of them would produce, in a given space of time. She knew them in crowds passing to or from their
nests, like ants or beetles. But she knew from her reading infinitely more of the ways of toiling insects, than
of these toiling men and women.”(Dickens)
28
(It is anaphora)
Parallelism (параллелизм) - repetition, involving the whole structure of the sentence; specific
similarity of syntactic structure of adjacent word groups. It usually contributes to the rhythmical effect.
Parallelism is differentiated into complete , presenting identical structure of two or more successive clauses
or sentences, and partial, in which the repeated sentence-pattern may vary.
Examples:
“The coach was waiting, the horses were fresh, the roads were good, and the driver was willing.”
(Ch. Dickens)
“If you are sorrowful, let me know why, and be sorrowful too; if you waste away and are paler and
weaker every day, let me be your nurse and try to comfort you. If you are poor, let us be poor together; but
let me be with you.”(Ch. Dickens)
Chiasmus (хиазм) – is also called reversed parallelism, for into its pattern two sentences are
included, of which the second necessarily repeats the structure of the first, only in reversed manner: Subject
– Predicate - Object; Object - Predicate - Subject.
Examples:
“I know the world and the world knows me.”
“Down dropped the breeze, the sails dropped down” (Coleridge)
“There are so many sons who won’t have anything to do with their fathers, and so many fathers who
won’t speak to their sons.”(O.Wilde)
Suspense (напряжение неизвестности) – holding the reader in tense anticipation. It is often
realized through the separation of predicate from subject or of link verb from predicative, by the deliberate
introduction between them of a phrase, clause or sentence (frequently parenthetic).
Examples:
“All this Mrs. Snagsby, as an injured woman and the friend of Mrs. Chadband and the follower of
Mr. Chadband and the mourner of the late Mr. Tulkinghorn, is here to certify.”(Ch.Dickens)
“I’ve been accused of bad taste. This has disturbed me, not so much for my own sake (since I am
used to slights and arrows of outrageous fortune) as for the sake of criticism in general.”(S.Maugham)
“…the day on which I take the happiest and best step of my life – the day on which I shall be a man
more exulting and more enviable than any other man in the world – the day on which I give Bleak House its
little mistress – shall be next month, then,” said my guardian.(Ch. Dickens)
Aposiopesis (умолчание, недосказ) – sudden break in the narration. It is used to indicate strong
emotions paralyzing the character’s speech or his deliberate stop in the utterance to conceal its meaning.
Example:
“It is the moment one opens one’s eyes that is horrible at sea. These days! Oh, these days! I wonder
how anybody can …” (J. Cornard)
“And it was so unlikely that any one would trouble to look there – until – until – well.”(Th.Drieser)
29
Phonetic expressive means.
Phonetic expressive means deal with sound instrumenting of the utterance. They produce the effect
of euphony or cacophony.
Alliteration (аллитерация) – a repetition of the same consonant usually at the beginning of
neighboring words or accented syllables.
Examples:
“ Landscape – lover, lord of language.” (A. Tennyson)
“His back was as blue as a swordfish’s and his belly was silver and his hide was smooth and
handsome.”(E.Hemingway)
(In his description of a shark alliteration of “s” and “h” create a smooth and rhythmical effect,
delineating the smoothness of the shark’s body).
Assonance (ассонанс) – agreement of vowel sounds in the stressed syllables (sometimes in the
following unstressed syllables) of neighboring words.
Example:
“ And the Raven never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting …”(E. Poe)
Onomatopoeia (звукоподражание) – the use of words in which the sound is suggestive of the
object or action designated: buzz, cuckoo, bang, hiss…
Example:
“And now there came the chock – chock of wooden hammers!”
Mansfield.
Graphical expressive means.
Graphical expressive means serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral
type of speech are expressed by intonation and stress. We refer here to emphatic use of punctuation and
deliberate chain of the spelling of a word.
Emphatic punctuation is often used in many syntactical stylistic devices – aposiopesis, rhetorical
question, suspense and may be not connected with any other stylistic devices.
Examples: “And there, drinking at the bar was – Finney!”(R.Chandler)
Graphon – is a graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation with the intentional
violation of the graphical shape of a word. Graphon is an effective means of supplying information about the
speaker’s origin, social or educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc.
To graphical expressive means refer:
-
changes of the type (italics, capitalization),
-
spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication).
Examples: “Help. Help. HELP.” Huxley.
(The desperate appeal is expressed by capitalization)
“… grinning like chim – pan – zee.”
30
O’Connor.
Rather a humiliating manner of commenting on is created by hyphenation.
SUPPLEMENT II
List of words and phrases for stylistic analysis of the text.
1.
the idea (gist, epitome, main line of thought, message) can be stated as the following…
2.
the text opens with the atmosphere of growing (nervous) suspense (strain)
3.
the syntactical organization (pattern, design) is violated
4.
the text abounds in (is abounded in) …
5.
the text (extract, excerpt, paragraph) under study (observation, examination) … falls (can be
split) into 2 (3) … parts
6.
the paragraph is in full accord (accordance) with the preceding one as far as its idea goes
7.
the compositional structure of the poem (paragraph) is based (built) on framing (antithesis,
parallelism)
8.
the extract is complete in itself (it presents a stylistic whole with the unity of its idea and
9.
the standard stands in sharp contrast to the following one; the contrast is reflected in the
form)
language
10.
the arrangement of the sentence in the paragraph is by no means accidental; it is informative
(it gives additional information about the idea)
11.
the mood of suspense (gloom, cheerfulness, nervousness) prevails 9is prevailed) in the
12.
the author draws a gloomy (cheerful) picture…
13.
the rhythm of the verse (narration) is unhurried (slow, energetic, throbbing, excited,
excerpt
meditative, jerky, broken, regular, even)
14.
the author digresses from the thread of narration (the topic of the story)
15.
(to pursue his aim) the author employs (resorts to, adheres to, uses, make use of, utilizes)…
16.
the author converses with the reader as if he has an interlocutor before him (the reader is
involved into the events of the text)
17.
the author lays bare (exposes, unmasks, condemns, tackles, touches upon, dwells on,
pinpoints, delineates high lights, stresses, underlines, ridicules, mocks at, accentuates)
18.
the author lays (puts, places) emphasis (stress) on…
19.
the writer carries the idea to the mind of the reader through…
20.
the stylistic device is an indicator (signal) of roused (fluttered, suppressed) emotions
(emotional, tensional mixed feelings)
31
21.
the stylistic device stresses (underlines, discloses, accentuates, emphasizes, is meant to point
out, throw light on, highlights, pinpoints, adds to, contributes to, gives an insight into, explains and clarifies,
serves to provide the text with additional emphasis)
22.
the satirical (humorous, ironical) effect is heightened (enhanced intensified, augmented) by a
convergence of stylistic device and expressive means in the paragraph
23.
the stylistic device contributes (adds) to the some effect (the effect desired by the author, the
effect the author strives for, a more colourful and emotional presentation of the scene)
24.
the stylistic device adds importance to the indication of place (time, manner) of action (it
indicates where and when the scene is laid)
25.
the stylistic device is suggestive (illustrative, expressive, explicit, implicit) of…
26.
the stylistic device and expressive means are linked and to produce a joint impression (are
aimed at achieving the desired effect)
27.
the stylistic device wants (needs) interpreting (decoding); it prepares the ground for the next
sentence (paragraph, syntactical whole)
28.
the stylistic device makes explicit what has been implied before, lends an additional
expressiveness to, is implicit, makes the utterance arresting, enables the author to convey the feelings and
emotions of the character, reveals the character’s low (high) social position, indicates the step the character
occupies in the social ladder, serves best to specify the author’s (character’s) attitude to
29.
there is no direct indication of that; it is understood through (perceiving through)
30.
the title of stylistic device is highly informative (symbolic, emotive, emotionally coloured,
emphatic)
31.
the stylistic device suggests a definite kind of intonational design; it is the word – that
prominence is given (if we analyse the intonational pattern of the sentence we see that to the word is given a
strong (heavy) stress)
32.
looking deeper into the arrangement of the utterance we come to the conclusion…
33.
the reader traces the marked partiality of the writer for his hero
34.
in order to impose (impress) on the reader his attitude towards the character the author
employs…
35.
leading gradually up to the hidden idea that he is pursuing the reader feels…
36.
the most convincing proof of the idea is…
37.
we’ll discuss the implication the following sentence suggests
38.
hints and suggestive remarks (implications and suggestions) scattered all over the text
39.
we perceive here that…
40.
on a more careful observation it becomes obvious…
41.
it is worthwhile going a little bit deeper in (to) the language texture
32
42.
the idea is hidden behind the unimportant facts the author describes; the reader has to read
between the lines in order to grasp the author’s idea
43.
the word (sentence) is changed (loaded, burdened) with imprecation connotation
44.
the stylistic device suggests a touch of authenticity (plausibility) to the narrated events (it
makes the reader believe that the narrated events have actually taken place in real life)
45.
the episode is presented through the perception of the character (this type of presenting a
picture of life as if perceived by a character – the so – called effect of immediate presence)
46.
the stylistic device serves as clue to the further development of the action
47.
the plot unfolds (itself) dynamically (slowly)
Words and phrases for interpreting fiction plot and plot structure.
1.
plots may be simple, complex, intricate
2.
exposition
3.
complications
4.
climax
5.
denouement
6.
the opening sentence (paragraph) of the story
7.
the closing sentence (paragraph)
8.
an internal conflict
9.
an external conflict
10.
settings may be realistic, historical, fantastic, exotic, rural, etc; to establish the setting; to set
the story in…; the events are set in..
11.
a straight line narrative structure, a complex narrative structure, a circular narrative structure;
a frame structure
12.
the simple and clear structure of the story
13.
the span of time the story covers
14.
digressions
15.
to interrupt the narrative with digressions
16.
literary techniques: retardation, foreshadowing, flashbacks to the past
Means of characterization.
1.
character – images, landscape – images, animal – images, object – images
2.
the central (main, major) character
3.
the protagonist
4.
the hero, heroine
5.
the villain
6.
the antagonist
7.
a foil, to serve as a foil to, to act as a foil to (for)
33
8.
the author’s mouthpiece
9.
a type
10.
a caricature
11.
a simple (or a fat) character, a complex (or well – rounded) character
12.
moral, mental, physical, spiritual characteristics
13.
direct characterization, indirect characterization
14.
to
reinforce
characterization,
to
contribute
to
characterization,
individualization,
verisimilitude
15.
to depict (to portray, to describe) a character
16.
to evaluate (to assess, to rate, to judge) a character’s actions
17.
to share a character’s emotions
18.
to arouse warmth, affection, compassion, delight, dislike, disgust, aversion, resentment,
antipathy, etc.
Narrative method.
1.
the omniscient author, the observer – author, an onlooker, an observer
2.
the story is told from the point of view of an onlooker (an observer, a character who
participates in the events)
3.
the events are presented through the perception of …
4.
the events are presented through the eyes and mind of …
5.
the dominant point of view
6.
the dramatic form, the pictorial form
7.
the story is presented in the dramatic (pictorial) form
8.
a reliable (or unreliable) narrator
9.
the narrator enters into the mind of; the narrator reveals the personality of; the narrator shares
the viewpoint of; the narrator gives a biased view of…
10.
a first – hand testimony
11.
the immediacy and freshness of the impression
12.
to increase the immediacy and freshness of the impression; to stimulate imagination; to
increase the credibility of the plot;
13.
to stimulate the reader to make his own judgments; to make the reader draw his own
conclusions
Tonal system.
1.
the tone may be formal, semi – formal, informal, conversational, casual, sympathetic,
cheerful, vigorous, serious, humorous, mock – serious, lyrical, dramatic, excited, agitated, passionate,
impassive, detached, matter – of – fact, dry, impartial, melancholy, moralizing, unemotional, sarcastic,
ironical, sneering, bitter, reproachful, etc.
34
2.
to assume a formal (informal) tone
3.
the tone is maintained by a number of stylistic devices
4.
the atmosphere may be peaceful, cheerful, cheerless, gloomy, etc.
5.
to create the necessary atmosphere (mood); to convey the atmosphere
6.
attitudes may be agreeable, optimistic, involved, detached, impassive, indifferent, critical,
contemptuous, ironical, cynical, etc.
7.
to evoke a certain attitude; to share the author’s (narrator’s, character’s) attitude
8.
to jeer, to sneer, to mock, to satirize, to ridicule, to poke fun at
9.
a humorous effect
10.
a deliberate exaggeration
11.
an unexpected comparison
12.
a round – about way of naming things
13.
the irony of life, the irony of the situation
The message of a literary work.
1.
contents and form; the contents are rendered vividly…
2.
theme; a story on the theme of …
3.
the main problems; to raise (pose) a problem, to reveal its relevance
4.
the writers standpoint (views) on
5.
a moving, exciting, impressive story
6.
to awaken (arouse) interest, to retain interest, to hold the interest of the reader
7.
to excite (evoke) a feeling, an emotion, a state of mind, the scene of being a witness
8.
to arouse the readers excitement, concern, curiosity, emotions
9.
to excite one’s mind, to touch one’s heart, to stir one’s imagination
10.
a response, to evoke (elicit) response
11.
an accent, to lay the accent (stress) on, to accentuate, to emphasize, to enforce
12.
a gifted, talented writer
13.
a means of conveying the message
14.
an artistic detail, a particularity, presupposition
15.
a means cohesion
16.
recurrence, repetition, parallelism
17.
the author’s message, the objective message
18.
a traditional symbol, a personal symbol
19.
implication; to express something implicitly, indirectly;
20.
to imply, to suggest, to hint at
21.
to be suggestive, to have implication
22.
to understand the implied meaning
35
23.
verisimilitude
24.
a true – to – life story, realistic story
25.
to create an impression of truth
26.
to render reality, to represent life
27.
to reveal different aspects of human nature, human relationships, people’s fates, errors,
conflicts, heroism
28.
to lay bare, to expose, to reveal.
Размещено на Allbest.ru
36