Учебник по английскому языку Куликова

N.V. Kulikova, L.A. Melnik, E.B. Zenkevich
ENGLISH
FOR
PSYCHOLOGY
STUDENTS
Edited by L.A. Melnik,
E.B. Zenkevich
MOSCOW
УДК 802.0(075.8):159.9
ББК 88.2АНГЛ-9
Р
ек о м ен д о в а н о к а ф е д ро й а н гл и й с к о го язы к а
гу м а ни та рны х ф акультетов
Московского г о с у д а р с т в е н н о г о у н и в е р с и т е т а
и м е н и М.ВЛ о м о н о с о в а .
Р ецензент
В.Я. Р оманов,
K u lik o v a
K 93
N.V.,
M
p sy c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s :
для
кандидат психологических наук
e l n ik
L.A.,
Z en k e v ic h
У ч е б н о е пособие
Е.В.
E n g l is h
fo r
п о английскому я зы к у
с т у д е н т о в ф а к у л ьтет о в п с и х о л о г и и в ы с ш и х у ч е б н ы х за в е д е ­
по н а п р а в л е н и ю 521000 — «Психология». М.: ООО УМК
«Психология», 2002. 255 с.
ний
Ц ел ь п о с о би я — о б у ч е н и е ра зли чн ы м видам ч т е н и я и основам
УЧЕБНОГО РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЯ, А ТАКЖЕ ВОВЛЕЧЕНИЕ СТУДЕНТОВ В ПРОФЕС­
СИОНАЛЬНО-ОРИЕНТИРОВАННОЕ ОБЩЕНИЕ НА ИНОСТРАННОМ я з ы к е и
ИНФОРМАЦИОННЫЙ ПОИСК, ЗНАНИЕ КОТОРОГО НЕОБХОДИМО ЛЮБОМУ
НАУЧНОМУ РАБОТНИКУ.
Т е к с т ы п о с о б и я за и м с тв о в а н ы и з с п е ц и а л и зи р о в а н н о й
АНГЛОЯЗЫЧНОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ И ОСВЕЩАЮТ РАЗНЫЕ НАПРАВЛЕНИЯ И
РАЗДЕЛЫ ПСИХОЛОГИИ.
С б о р н и к п ре д н а зн а чен
д л я студ ен то в
ПСИХОЛОГИИ ВЫСШИХ УЧЕБНЫХ
1и 2 к у рс о в факультетов
за в е д е н и й .
ISBN 5-93692-032-1
© Л .А .М е л ь н и к , Е .Б . З е н к е в и ч ,
К у л и к о в а Н.В., 2001.
© ООО УМК «Психология», 2001.
П РЕ Д И С Л О В И Е
Настоящее учебfгое пособие предназначается для сту­
дентов-психологов второго года обучения. Пособие ста­
вит своей задачей научить студентов читать и понимать
англоязычную литературу по специальности, привить им
навыки учебного реферирования и устного общения на
профессиональные темы. Рассчитанное на 200-250 часов
занятий, пособие ориентировано на коммуникативно-дея­
тельностный подход в преподавании английского языка.
Структура пособия предусматривает девять цикловуроков, объединенных по тематическому принципу и по
общности включенного в них грамматического материала.
Они строятся по единой общей схеме, хотя и отличаются
разнообразием конкретного наполнения. Заключитель­
ный десятый цикл-урок является как бы завершающим
этапом профессионально-ориентированного обучения и
моделирует информационно-поисковую деятельность на­
учного работника. Материалом здесь служат каталоги
издательств, библиографические материалы и аннотации.
К пособию прилагается серия текстов и упражнений для
аудирования, сопровождающих каждый цикл.
Каждый из первых девяти циклов-уроков поделен на
пять разделов, каждый из которых включает один-два
текста разных типов и жанров в зависимости от целевой
установки и серию упражнений к ним, а завершается тем
или иным упражнением, направленным на контроль сте­
пени сформированности умений и навыков в отдельных
видах речевой деятельности. Уроки строятся но следую­
щей схеме:
I
раздел. Техника чтения. Обучение пониманию
структуры текста на уровне предложения или абзаца, его
Ш м г в и стич ес кои цел ьн о сти и навы ку о п о зн аван и я пре­
д и к а ц и й высшего? и н и зш его порядка для ор и ен тац и и в
тексте.
2 р азд ел . Т екст д л я изучаю щ его ч тен и я. У п раж не­
н и я на п р о гн о зи р о ван и е, проверку общ его и детального
п о н и м а н и я , работа над активн ы м и п о тен ц и ал ьн ы м сл о­
варем , перевод.
3 раздел. Грам м атика. К ом плексн ая п о этап н ая об ра­
б отка н аи более важ ны х тем второго года обучени я (стра­
д ател ь н ы й зал о г, н е л и ч н ы е ф о р м ы глагола, условны е
п р ед л о ж ен и я, сослагательное н аклон ен и е).
4 раздел. Ч тение с целью и звлечения и н ф о р м ац и и и
ее последую щ ей о б р аб о тки , обучение элем ен там см ы с­
л о в о й к о м п р есси й текста: по п ы тка ан ал и за и ерархичес­
к о й си стем ы см ы слов.
5 раздел. О бсуж ден ие проблем ы , к о т о р а я в р а зл и ч ­
н ы х а с п е к т а х р а с с м а т р и в а л а с ь в пред ы ду щ и х разделах
ц и к л а. С ти м у л и р о в ан и е сп о н тан н о й и н и ц и а ти в н о й речи
В о п о р о й н а р ечевы е б л о к и ), о р га н и за ц и я груп п овой
д и скуссии .
В п р о ц ессе п одготовки п о со б и я работа меж ду автора­
м и расп р ед ел ял ась следую щ и м образом:
1. Р азработка пр о сп екта пособия, подбор текстов, со с­
тавлен и е у п р аж н ен и й к ц и кл ам -у р о кам II, V I, V III, X —
Н. В. К уликова.
2. П одбор текстовы х м атериалов и со ставлени е упраж ­
н ен и й к ц и кл ам -у р о кам : I , IV, V II — Л .А .М ельни к.
3. П од бор текстовы х м атериалов и со ставлени е упраж ­
н е н и й к ци кл ам -у р о кам : III, V, IX — Е .Б .Зен кеви ч .
О бщ ее р е д а к т и р о в а н и е Е .Б .З е н к е в и ч , Л .А .М ельник.
Авторы
UNIT
READING
I
TECHNIQUES
%
Read the te x t paying atten tio n to th e logical breaks.
P sych o lo g y ,/ th e science o f m in d a n d b e h a v io r,/ em erged
in the n in eteen th c e n tu ry .//T h e very id ea o f this new scien ­
c e / w ould have b een unim aginable* / w ith o u t earlier develop­
m ents in p h ilo so p h y .//
O nce psychology w as established as an area o f scientific
in q u iry ,/ it w as shaped by th e influences o f several different
perspectiv es.// E ach perspective / has been based o n a different
no tio n o f w hat psychology’s focus should b e ,/ and each has
m ade a u n iq u e c o n trib u tio n .// F o r e x a m p le ,/ G estalt psy­
chology proposed / th a t th e m ind c a n n o t be u n d erstood as a
collection o f elem ents / but m ust be seen in term s o f organized
w h o le s,// Behaviorism excluded th e m ind from study a lto ­
g e th e r / b ecau se, un lik e b e h a v io r ,/ th e m in d c a n n o t be
observed directly.
T he m any influences in psychology’s past / have helped to
m ake psychology / a very diverse field to -d a y .// T h at diversity
is e v id e n t./ n o t only in th e content, o f academ ic p s y c h o lo g y /
but also in th e m any professional endeavors / psychologists
engage in .//
* Ш'ЩШ<было бы предептпть!
II.
1. Understanding complicated sentences.
What makes a text difficult to understand?
It is not always because the ideas are difficult to follow, or
because the writer uses unusual words. Sometimes a very simple
argument or description can become much more difficult to
read just because o f the way the sentences are constructed.
Look at these four sentences:
There were some people sitting at the next table.
Mary was busily engaged ([in'geid^d] занята) in giving
her opinion o f what was wrong with them.
John told Mary that he was going to leave the Conference
Hall if she went on talking like that.
He was becoming more and more embarrassed (смущенный).
Now look at a different way of presenting the same facts:
John, who was becoming more and more embarrassed,
told Mary, who was busily engaged in giving her opinion of
what was wrong with the people sitting at the next table, that
if she went on talking like that he was going to leave the
Conference Hall.
What exactly has happened? One part o f the third sentence
(John told Mary that he was going to leave the Conference
Hall) has been used as a sort of box, and everything else has
been put inside it. The different parts of the “box” sentence
(John, told Mary, th at, and he was going to leave the
Conference Hall) have been separated from each other, so
that it is not easy at first to see the connections between them,
and the sentence becomes harder to follow.
H ere are some more examples:
1). The quite unusual alarm (тревога) with which the
researcher (исследователь), who was generally quite a calm
person, received the data obtained in the experiment convinced
(убеждать) me that.the hypothesis [hai'poflisisl hadn’t been
confirmed (подтверждать).
6
Who or what convinced me that the hypothesis hadn’t
been confirmed:
a) the data obtained;
b)
the researcher’s alarm;
c) the researcher.
2)
. Although the weather was very changeable, and in some
eases caused us serious inconvenience (неудобство), on the
whole our holidays which we had planned in great detail
months before, turned out to be satisfactory.
What is the “basic” sentence?
3)
. Arthur was not sure which button to press, for he had
left the instructions to the device at home, and when his chief
entered the laboratory accompanied by two assistants said:
“Excuse me, sir”.
Who said “ Excuse me, sir”?
What is the “basic” sentence?
2. Read the text. Find the “basic” sentences in each of the
complex sentences marked by the vertical lines. Translate the
complex sentences.
Psychology is one of the most rapidly developing social
sciences, touching almost every aspect of our lives. It has as
its principal focus the individual human being, with special
emphasis ['emfasis] on the inner (внутренний) life, the
personality, the patterns o f thought, consciousness and
behaviour o f the person. Society which has become more
complex is turning more and more to psychology to answer
some of the serious human problems of our day and age. The
public is already convinced of the benefits o f using psy­
chological findings in solving such diverse (разнообразный)
problems as mental illness, human factors in space exploration
(исследование), as well as in helping persons become more
self-actualizing.
7
As a branch of science it has been defined in various
ways, according to the particular method of approach adopted
(принимать) or fieid of study proposed by the individual
psychologist. But a comprehensive definition, which would*
include all varieties, that represent aspects of the original
and historical meaning of the word, would* run as follows.
Psychology is the branch o f biological science which studies
the phenom ena of conscious (сознательны й) life and
behaviour, in their Origin (происхождение), development,
and m anifestation (проявление), and em ploying such
methods as are available (доступный) and applicable to the
particular field of study or particular problem with which
the individual scientist is engaged.
The main task o f psychology as it has developed in Russia
is materialistic investigation o f the highest forms o f human
psychic ['saikik] (mental) activity, o f their evolution in the
process of socio-historical development, and o f the fun­
damental laws o f their operation.
Because psychology affects so many aspects o f our lives
it is important, even for those who do not intend to specialise
in the field, to know something about its basic facts and
research methods.
TEXT STUDY
III.
Before reading the text on man’s behaviour decide whether
the following statements are true or false:,
a) the differences among psychologists are theoretical rat­
her than practical;
• b) psychologists are concerned with few problems;
c) psychologists treat mental illnesses;
* would —
i
юб i/ аклонение (бы)
d) if you take a healthy infant you can bring him up to be
anything you wish;
e) there is an intimate relation between brain activity and
behaviour experience;
f) unconscious forces 'are more important than consci­
ous ones.
Now read the text to see whether you were right. Choose
the title that best suits it:
a) the subject-matter of psychology;
b) conceptual approaches to psychology;
c) the analysis o f psychological phenomena.
Psychologists are concerned with a wide variety o f prob­
lems. Som e are o f broad co n cern : w hat ch ild -re a rin g
(['ridring] воспитание детей) m ethods produce happy and
effective adults ([’sdAlt] взрослый); how can mental illnesses
be prevented, and the like. Others are m ore specific: How can
people be persuaded (убеждать) to give up smoking? What
is the most effective method for teaching children to read?
What area of the brain (мозг) controls speech?
Basically, we are interested in finding out “Why people
act as they do?” Any action a person takes can be explained
from several different points o f view.
Suppose, for example, you walk across the street. This act can be
described in terms of the firing of the nerves that activate the
muscles [mAsIz] that move the legs that transport you across the
street. It can also be described without reference to anything
within the body; the green light is a stimulus to which you respond
by crossing the street. Or your action might be explained in
terms of its ultimate purpose; you plan to visit a friend, and
crossing the street is one of many acts involved in carrying out
the plan.
Just as there are different ways o f describing any act of
behaviour, there are also different approaches to psychology.
The analysis of psychological phenomena can be approached
9
from several viewpoints. One approach to the study of human
beings attempts to relate their actions to events taking place
inside the body, particularly within the brain and the nervous
system. This approach specifies the neurobio logical processes
that underlie behaviour and mental events.
The view that behaviour should be the sole subject-matter
of psychology was first advanced by the American psychologist
John B.Watson in the early 1900s. He believed that, although
man may be at times an active agent in his own development
and behaviour, he is still basically what his environment ma­
kes him. Therefore, the basic problem is to find out how man
behaves or responds as a result of changes or improvements
in the environment or stimuli. This view focuses on the obser­
vable behaviours of man; that is, those factors that influence
him in his environment and his reactions to these forces. This
aporoach is often referred to as stimulus-response or S-R
psychology. Perhaps the spirit of behaviourism is best seen in
Watson’s belief that he could take any healthy infant at ran­
dom (наугад) and, given his own specified world to bring
him up in, bring him up to be anything he wished — doctor,
prince, lawyer, criminal and so forth.
Another approach to the study of man is psychoana­
lysis, founded by Sigmund Freud. Freud concluded that
personality and our degrees of mental health depend on
the actions of three major (основной) forces: the id — our
unconscious instincts, the ego — our conscious self or intellect
— and superego, the conditional reflexes friifleksiz] of social
rules and internalised values (ценности). The ego, or self, is
often under strain to withstand the pleasure forces from the
id, pressured (оказывать давление) by the reality forces of
the environment and the moral forces o f our upbringing
(superego).The ego and the superego are the mere tips of
the id. It is what is underneath that really counts. For
Freudists what is hidden is more important and real than
what we feel and d(%
10
The humanistic school view is that man becomes what he
makes of himself by his own actions and thoughts. It is concern­
ed with the topics having little place in existing theories and
systems: e.g. love, creativity ([kriei'tiviti] творчество), selfactualization, higher values, humour, affection (привя­
занность), courage and so on. These are exactly characteristics
that describe our human nature. Humanists believe that man
is born basically good, and that conscious forces are more
important than unconscious forces.
Russian psychology was inseparably linked with the de­
velopment of research into psycho-physiology in the works of
I.Pavlov, V.Bekhterev, L.Orbeli and others. In refuting (опро­
вергать) the idealistic and mechanistic influences, Russian
scientists asserted in psychology the marxist teaching on acti­
vity and its socio-historical foundation, the ideas of Lenin’s
theory of reflection. The theoretical and experimental study of
the basic problems of psychology was carried out by A.Luna,
A.Leontyev, B.Teplov, S.Rubinstein and others.
Present-day psychology is a complex and differentiated
research system extending throughout general, social,
developmental, pedagogical, child, medical, engineering psy­
chology.
Notes:
John B. Watson (1878-1958) - founder of radical behaviourism
Sigmund Freud fsigmund froidj (1956-1939) - the founder
of psychoanalysis
1900s-ninetcen hundreds
the sole subject-matter of psychology - единственный
предмет психологии
IV,
Look through the text and single out the approaches
described.
У.
Read the text again and:
find different interpretations of man’s behaviour;
point out what is specific about the neurobiological ap­
proach;
give the essence of the behaviouristic view on man’s behaviour;
see if you can say in what way the humanistic approach
differs
from other existing theories.
Words to be remembered:
assert v. - утверждать
affect v. - оказы вать влияни е, воздействовать па кого-либо,
на что-либо
adult п. - взрослый
apparent adj. - явны й, очевидный
approach n. - подход
attem pt n. - попытка
advance v. - выдвигать /тео р и ю /
concern v. - иметь отнош ение
be concerned, with - интересоваться (чем-либо)
conclude v. - делать вывод
contain v. - содержать, вмещать
conscious adj. - сознательный
creativity n. - творчество
create v.$e творить, создавать
disorder n. - болезнь
environment n. - окружающая среда
exist v. - существовать
to be engaged in - заниматься (чем-либо)
extend v. - распространять, простираться
hide v. - прятать
inseparably adv. - неразрывно, неотделимо
involve v. - включать
introduce v. - вводить
improve v. - улучшать
in term s of - в плане; с точки зрения
insist v. - настаивать
link v. - связывать
perceive v. - воспринимать
purely adv. - чисто, только
prevent v. предотвращать
12
purpose n. - цель
respond v. - отвечать
refute v. - опровергать
relate v. - связывать
refer to - ссылаться (на что-либо, кого-либо)
specify v. - определять, устанавливать, обусловливать
ultimate adj. - конечный
underlie (underlay - under!ain)v.- лежать в основе
VL
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
man is an active agent in his own development; some prob­
lems are of broad concern to psychologists; act of behaviour;
this view focuses on some phenomena; observable beha­
viour; at random; basically; internalized values; higher
values; area of the brain.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
психологи занимаются; широкий круг проблем;
предотвратить заболевание; и тому подобное; в
основном; объяснять с разных точек зрения; в плане
конечной цели; осуществить план; лежать в основе;
предмет психологии; выдвинуть точку зрения; в
результате изменений; влиять на что-либо; другой
подход к изучению; зависеть от действия основных сил;
противостоять силам удовольствия; психологи
полагают; быть неразрывно связанным с чем-либо;
ученые утверждают.
VII.
1. Classify the vocabulary according to the following criteria:
a ) w o r d s u s e d f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g d if f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to
p s y c h o lo g y ;
b ) fie ld s o f p s y c h o lo g y .
2.
Find matching pairs of words:
a) purpose
tested, (un)conscious;
m ethod
mental, ultim ate, initial;
process
teaching, scientific, child-rearing,
good, educational.
b) to advance
to observe
to carry out
behaviour, events, theory;
phenom ena, activity, data;
idea, plan, experim ent, test,
orders, hypothesis,
philosophy.
V III.
Fit the meaning and the word:
. Give the nam e o r details o f a particular environment
person/thing
assert
2) . Knowing clearly what is happening
around
improve
JKf A person who Jp fully grown (over the
1)
age 18)
4) . Easily seen or understood
5) , Careful exam ination of some subject
to fmd out new tacts
6) . Give a close idea; show
7) . Become or make better
8) . Т1Ш central or most important
surroundings, people, way of life,
circumstances in which a person
lives
9) . Feeling o f worry o r trouble
10) . Make something which is new
11) . Say very firmly
12) . The central o r most important part o f
Shythteg
apparent
research
reflect
conscious
specify
essence
concern
adult
create
IX .
1. M atch the words with the opposite meaning.
a) include, adult, essential, produce, hide, birth, refute,
conscious, fulfill, inside, improve.
b) dam age, secondary, neglect, support, destroy, u ncon­
scious, exclude, exhibit, infant, death, outside.
2. M atch the words with a sim ilar meaning.
a) evident, arrive, try, m ove, aw are, stretch , conceal,
include, connect, sense, aim , reply, disprove.
b) advance, attem pt, perceive, link, involve, hide, extend,
ap p ro a c h , a p p a re n t, c o n scio u s, p u rp o se, respond,
refute, ultimate.
X.
1. Form verbs from these nouns by means of conversion
and translate both.
approach, influence, advance, attem pt, increase (m ind
the stress), doubt, shape, affect, link, research.
2. M ake the following words negative by adding prefixes
‘un’v * i n ’- <‘i m 4 4 r ’% ‘iF -).
e.g. aware — unaware, definite
ш
indefinite, legal — illegal
a) aw are, conscious, believable, able, know n, likely,
im portant;
b) e x p e r ie n c e d , d iffe re n t, effec tiv e, ^co n v enient*
considerate* incredible, definite;
c) possible, logical, regular, responsible, legal.
3. Form adjectives from the following nouns, adding
the suffix ‘a l \
e.g. policy я political
psychology, behaviour, influence, logic.
W hat other adjectives with the same suffix are used in the
text?
4. Fill in the table of derivatives:
verb
noun
adjective
existence
adverb
-
persuasive
conclusion
influence
consciously
introduction
instant
extension
productively
observable
creative
separate
specific
perceptual
5. There are some words of Latin and Greek origin in
English which have irregular plural:
e.g. crisis (crises), hypothesis (hypotheses), criterion (criteria),
index (indices).
Pick out from the text some other words of Latin and
Greek origin and learn their singular and plural forms.
XI.
Two of the words in each group below are similar in form or
meaning. Check the word which doesn’t belong.
16
I. aware
conscious
involve
2, persuade
convince
creative
3. evaluate
estimate
ultimate
4. specify
improve
involve
5. environment
event
fulfilment
6. conscious
disastrous
influence
7. creativity 8. respond
attempt
conclude
minority
answer
XII.
Translate the fourth paragraph of the text into Russian.
G R A M M A R . T H E P A S S IV E V O IC E
X III.
Pick out sentences with verbs in the Passive Voice from the
text. The Notes below will help you.
XIV.
Read the notes and translate the examples given:
The Passive is far more common in English, than in Russian.
a). The passive is used when we are more interested in the
action itself than who did it. (We don’t mention the agent).The
agent is also omitted (опускаться) if it is vague (неясен)
(i.e. expressed by such words as “people5*! “somebody® etc.)
or self-evident (очевиден) from the context.
e.g. 1). M any new houses were b u ilt in my district last
year.
2). The film is being much spoken about.
Л). Much has been done to promote the development
of psychology in Russia.
2 Зак. 3300
Ш
NOTE that the only changeable part in this form (Simple,
Continious or Perfect) is the verb “to be” (the first
element).
b). In cases with prepositional verbs don’t forget to keep
the preposition in the Passive sentence.
e.g. 1). The proposal was approved of.
2) . After a long discussion an agreement was arrived at.
3) . The behaviouristic approach is often referred to as a
stimulus-response psychology.
4) . Professor Ivanov’s lectures are listened to with great
interest.
5) . The techniques of the experiment will be objected to.
6) . This practice has long been done away with.
XV.
Compare the forms and tell the difference in meaning.
Over the last years the status of psychology has been greatly
improved in Russia.
In 1966 faculties and branches were created in a number
o f universities in which skilled specialists in different fields of
psychological science are being trained. The network of research
laboratories investigating problems of psychology has been
expanded. In 1971 an Institute of psychology was opened in
the Russian Academy of Sciences, which fulfils the functions
of the central institute in the development of psychological
science.
XVI.
1. Choose the appropriate form while reading
the paragraph:
A great part of psychological research consists of quanti­
tative experimenting. When any experiment (has made, has
IS
been made) whose results^ ©an (be expressed, express) in
numerical form, some kind of arithmetical treatment of the
results is necessary to discover what conclusions can (draw,
be drawn) from the measurements which (have been made,
made). The system of techniques used for these purposes is
that of statistical methods. These methods must (be used, have
Used) if one is to have a principle for determining when to
draw conclusions and what conclusions to draw. It is very
uneconomical to use one thousand subjects to support a result
which could (be proved, prove) by means of forty and the
multiplication of experimental subjects does not achieve the
result aimed at. One cannot carry out quantitative psychological
research, or understand how the research of others (has been
carried, carried) out without some understanding of statistical
methods. M any students (have discouraged, have been
discouraged) by the prospect of acquiring this knowledge. But
there is no reason for this discouragement. The mathematical
operations that they will (be required, require) to perform
will only be those familiar to the elementary school child.
Thus, it must (be admitted, admit) that much can (do, be
done) to reduce the element o f drudgery in a statistical
calculation ]>y the use of tables and calculating machines.
2. The language of English newspaper headlines is
compressed (the auxiliary verb is omitted). Restore the
headlines to the full form.
New Drugs Discovered to Improve Memory.
Emotional Stability & Family Size Closely Related.
Proof of Mental Telepathy Found Recently.
Anxiety Controlled by Self-Regulation of Brain Waves.
Adult Intelligence Determined by Experience during
Infancy.
XVII.
Combine the matching sentences from the left and
the right columns:
1). The equipment is being
tested.
a) The hypothesis has not
been proved yet.
2). The equipment has been
tested.
b) We cannot proceed
with our experiment.
3) . The data of the experiment c) You can enter the
are being processed.
laboratory.
4)
. The data of the experiment d) The hypothesis proved
have been processed.
to be correct.
5). The experiment is being
carried out.
e) You can process the
data.
6). The experiment has been
carried out.
f) You can start the
experiment.
7). The necessary equipment is g) Nobody is allowed to
enter the room.
being delivered.
8). The necessary equipment
has been delivered.
h) You cannot conduct
your experiment.
9). The subjects are being
examined.
Щ The results are
available.
10). The subjects have been
examined.
Ц You will have the
results tomorrow.
XVIII.
1. A new experiment on memory has been carried out in the
laboratory lately. Find out everything about it.
Report what is being done\
what has been done (groupwork).
Use the following words:
data — obtained; results — processed/verified; facts — con­
firmed; hypothesis — proved; the details published; the
desired level of accuracy achieved; subjects — tested.
2. You attended the conference on the problems of memory
held last week at the Institute of Psychology. Tell your
friend about participation in it; comment on the results of
the conference.
XIX.
Fill in the table of Passive forms (use the verb ‘to do’)
Simple
Continuous
Perfect
Present
Past
Future
-
READING
AND
DISCUSSION.
XX.
The text below is concerned with the application of
psychological theory in children’s education in the USA.
1. Read the text and identify the topic:
a) the role o f innate intelligence;
b) the nature o f intelligence;
c) the impact o f the theory o f intelligence testing on
American ed licit ion.
Я
In the United States, many different views of child devel­
opm ent flourished none approaching the rigour (сила) and
clarity (ясность) that an adequate theory had to achieve. These
theories appeared to be not so much contradictory (проти­
воречивый) as unrelated to each other. Several schools of
thought have been influential in America in shaping the edu­
cation and child-rearing practices. Perhaps the theory o f intel­
ligence testing has had the greatest impact (влияние) on
American education. This theory is based on the unproven
assumption that children are born with innate abilities that
are, for the most part, independent o f social experience.
Another assumption (утверждение) is that innate differences
of intelligence (интеллект) can be measured by a test. Later,
such tests “discovered” differences in intelligence between
races and socio-economic classes.
However, with all the “scientific” test construction and so­
phisticated (сложный) statistical analysis o f results there has
never been agreement on the nature o f “intelligence” itself.
The theoretical question o f the nature o f intelligence was
deemed unimportant. What was important in the period of
development of monopoly capitalism was the role of IQ* as
an explanation of classes, o f the existence o f wealth and poverty.
To socialize children into accepting the rightness of the existing
social structure* they were “educated” to believe that innate
intelligence was the basis for economic and social organisation.
Wealth could then be justified (оправдывать) by intelligence.
Only by accepting their inferiority ([infir)ri'oriti] более низкое
положение, неполноценность) as the basis for their class
position would children grow up to accept the status “quo”
in a “harmonious” society.
Intelligence testing has been disastrous (пагубный) for
many children, particularly from the lower socio-economic
classes and minorities. Perhaps the most pernicious (fp ^'n i^sl
*IQ - intelligence quotient |in'teji4^ns ' kwou^ntj
22
Вредный) practice in schools is ranking student! into a hie­
rarchy |P M M I I j | of “ intelligence” . Even where the group
Intelligence test has been discontinued as a result of community
protest, standardized achievement tests have often taken their
plnec to track students into slow, average (средний) and fast
leurners. The prevailing notion that, the child is responsible
(ответственен) for his learning stems directly from IQ theory,
which places ceiling on children’s assumed abilities early in life.
Many children, taught to doubt (сомневаться) their own
potential, drop out and give up. The high drop-out rate, the
llmctional illiteracy, the feelings o f frustration and inadequacy
lltv aedikwdsi] are the visible aspects of the serious psycholo­
gical damage done to children’s development. The failure of
American schools to develop a degree of literacy equal to
other industrial nations is shocking. American true literacy
rate has dropped down to the level o f Burma, Albania and the
Fiji Islands according to 1980 UNESCO figures.
2. Make the right choice:
• The theory of intelligence testing has had the greatest
impact ~
a) on American education;
b) on education all over the world;
c) on education in Russia.
• The theory of intelligence testing is based on the assump
tion that
a) children’s innate abilities are independent o f social
experience;
b) there are no innate differences o f intelligence betwe­
en
races and socio-economic classes;
c) abilities are not innate.
• The role of IQ was important to accept that
a) society is responsible for the child’s own learning;
b) wealth and poverty can be justified by intelligence;
c) innate intelligence wasn’t the basis for economic and
social organisation.
3.
the text.
Rank the following statements to make up a summary of
a) . The theory o f intelligence testing is based on the u n ­
proven assumption that children are born with innate
abilities that can be measured by a test;
b) . The theory o f intelligence testing has had the greatest
impact on American education;
c) . The notion that the child is responsible for his own
learning stems from IQ theory;
d ) . Intelligence testing has been disastrous for many chil­
dren, particulary from lower socio-economic classes and
minorities;
e ) . The role of IQ as an explanation of classes, of the
existence o f wealth and poverty was important in the
period of development of monopoly capitalism.
4‘. Here are two more summaries. Choose the best one and
give your reasoning. The summary above is one of the possible
summaries.
a)
. The theory of intelligence testing is based on the un­
proven assumption that children are born with innate abilities
that can be measured by a test.
The role of IQ as an explanation of classes, of the existence
of wealth and poverty was important in the period of de­
velopment of monopoly capitalism in America. As a result the
children were “educated” to believe that innate intelligence
was the basis for economic and social organisation.
This intelligence testing has been disastrous for many chil­
dren, particularly from the lower socio-economic classes.
b)
. The theory of intelligence testing is based on the
unproven assumption that children are born with innate abilities.
24
They are independent of social experience and can be measured
by a test.
XXI.
Read the text and give a 2-minute summary of it.
Record your summary.
ACTIVE AGENT AND/OR PASSIVE
VICTIM (жертва)
The three major psychological views of man - the beha­
vioristic, the psychoanalytic, and the humanistic - differ most
importantly on the issue of whether man is to be conceived
primarily as passive or active. These two positions are often referred
to as the “pull” and “push” theories of motivation. The pull
theory finds most of man’s motivation in the environment, in
external forces such as rewards and punishments; the push theory
finds most of man’s motivation from within the individual, in
internal forces represented by urges and growth tendencies. All
three viewpoints recognize that man is both an active agent and
a passive victim of motivational forces. The key difference is how
man is seen primarily. If placed on a continuum from passivity to
activity, the order of the three viewpoints would be behaviorism,
psychoanalysis, and humanism. In the humanistic model there is
a wholehearted (искренний) belief that we will learn far more
about man if we view him as an active agent rather than as a
passive victim of external forces. The other two models of man,
however, are gradually placing more emphasis on the import­
ance of man as the single most important determiner of his
behavior in order to explain how so much of human behavior
is initiated by man.
XXII.
1. Say whether the following statements are true or false.
In your arguments use: I quite agree with...; I don’t think
so; I can’t agree with...; on the contrary; quite so; exactly;
from the point of view of Soviet psychology.
25
a) child’s intellectual potential is determined biologi­
cally;
b) school learning stimulates processes of development;
c) the mental development of the human being continues
through his education and rearing;
d) L. Vygotsky and J. Piaget expressed identical views on
school learning.
2. Read the text below to identify the difference contained in
some of the existing views on intellegence.
Express your own opinion (groupwork).
In your discussion use the follow ing :
in my opinion
as for me
i can’t agree th a t...
One of the most influential schools of psychology abroad
is that of Jean Piaget, a most prolific writer. He is considered
by more and more psychologists and educators to be “Mr.
Child Psychologist”. He was preoccupied especially with nature
of cognitive and intellectual development in the growing child.
His theory affirms the development of new cognitive structures
in a series of age-related stages. Summarized, these are: the
period of sensory - motor intelligence (0-2 years); the period
of preoperational thought (2-7 years) characterized by the
development of language and concept-development, the period
of concrete operations (7-11 years), and the period of formal
operations (11-15 years) in which the individual’s cognitive
structures are most highly developed (enabling the adolescent
([asdo(u)'lesnt] подросток) to apply logic to abstract as we!!
as concrete thinking).
Though Piaget does believe the role of the environment in
developing is strategic, he assumes that the child’s intellectual
26
potential is determined biologically. In other words, certain
(\inctions must mature and development must reach a certain
Mage before the school can begin teaching knowledge and
skills effectively. In the relationship between learning and
development it is learning that lags behind.
According to Vygotsky, the prominent Soviet psychologist,
the founder of the Cultural-Historical theory of a person’s
psychological development, the mental development of the
human being continues right through his education and rearing
as a universal form of assimilating the socio-historical abilities
of his time. Vygotsky believed that school learning contributes
something qualitatively new to the child’s development, that
it stimulates processes of development which would not occur
without it.
Traditionally, in non-socialist countries, the child must
do tests to evaluate mental development without help from
others. But Vygotsky believed that what the child can do with
help to-day, he will be able to do independently to-morrow.
Vygotsky stressed potential and called the difference between
what the child knows and what he can learn with help “the
zone o f proximal development” . In the m atter of the
relationship between learning and development Vygotsky
differed from other learning theorists in that he believed that
development “results” from learning.
Development of higher mental functions doesn’t just
happen maturationally. It is built into school learning.
XXIII.
1. What are the most popular approaches to psychology
nowadays?
2. What can you say about their validity?
3. What new schools do you know?
27
LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
XXIV.
Listen to the text and answer the following questions:
1) . Why do children possess larger vocabulary to-day?
2) . How does Piaget view language mastery?
3) . How many words does a child know by the age o f 6?
4) . How can the language competencies o f young children
be improved ?
UNIT II
READING
TECHNIQUES
I.
The text below provides a brief overview of the nervous
system. Read the text to find different ways of expressing
structure and function.
1.
Fill in the table to sum up the different ways of expressing
structure:
PARTS: The scull,
the spinal column ...
Chapters ...
PARTS: ...
make up/form
WHOLE:
the skeleton
a b o o k ...
are interrelated.
WHOLE:
includes ...
The nervous system ... is divided into ...
PARTS: ...
2. Continue the list of words expressing function in the text
(groupwork);
transmit information, carry impulses, regulate processes,
control activities.,.
Rearrange it in alphabetical order /in logical succession.
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
All parts of the nervous system are interrelated. However,
for purposes of anatomical discussion, the nervous system
can be separated into the following divisions and subdivisions:
Щ
Nervous
system
Central
nervous
system
Peripheral
nervous
system
Brain
Spinal cord
Somatic
system
Sympathetic
Autonomic
system
Parasympathetic
The central nervous system includes all the nerves in the
brain and spinal cord, and it contains the majority of the
body's neurons. Some o f the very simplest stimulus-response
reflexes are carried out within the spinal cord.The peripheral
[pd'rifardlj nervous system consists of the nerves leading from
the brain and spinal cord to the other parts of the body. The
peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the somatic
system and the autonomic ([oitd'nomik] вегетативная) system.
The nerves of the somatic system transmit information about
external stimulation from the skin, muscles, and joints to the
central nervous system; they make us aware of pain, pressure,
and temperature variations. Nerves of the somatic system also
carry impulses from the central nervous system back to the body
parts, where they initiate action.
The nerves of the autonomic system run to and from the
internal organs regulating such processes as respiration, heart
rate, and digestion [di’d^estym]. It derives its name from the
fact that many of the activities it controls are autonomous, or
self-regulating - such as digestion and circulation, which
continue even when a person is asleep or unconscious.
The autonomic nervous system has two divisions - the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic - which are often anta­
gonistic in their actions.
jft)
The sympathetic division tends to act as a unit. During
emotional excitement it simultaneously speeds up the heart,
dilates the arteries of the skeletal muscles and heart, and
constricts the arteries of the skin and digestive organs; its action
also leads to perspiration and to secretion of certain hormones
that increase emotional arousal.
Unlike the sympathetic system, the parasympathetic
division tends to affect one organ at a time. If the sympathetic
system is thought of as dominant during violent and excited
activity, the parasympathetic system may be thought of as
dominant during quiescence [kwai'esns]. It participates in,
digestion and, in general, it maintains the functions that
conserve and protect bodily resources.
When both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers are
connected to the same muscle or gland, they usually act in
opposite manners. Thus, one speeds the heart rate, the other
slows it; one inhibits digestive processes, the other facilitates
them, one dilates the pupils of the eyes, the other constricts
them. Both systems are usually exerting some influence (that
is, both are usually “on”), but one temporarily dominates the
other. Their interaction is very complex though, and not fully
understood.
П.
Look through the text again to find the devices used to
express equivalence (groupwork):
a) find at least 5 instances of synonymy;
b) find at least 5 instances o f antonymy;
c) find at least 5 markers o f equivalence introducing
explanatory sentence or word.
Which of these introduce(s) an example: ...
an equivalent expression: ...
a rephrasing of what has been
said before: ...
.>l
TEXT
STUDY
TIL
Before studying the text about the brain answer the
following questions:
a) . How can we tell whether a particular part of the brain
is associated with a particular [paftikjula] behaviour?
b) . Has a detailed atlas of the brain mapping psychological
functions been made?
c) .Are all areas of the brain equipotential [ekwipfl'tenjal]?
d) . Are any functions of the brain duplicated ['dju:plikeitid]
in more than one brain area? Why?
e) . Is it possible to remove systematically parts of the brain
and observe the kinds of defects that result? In humans
or animals?
f) . What do permanently implanted electrodes in animals
help determine? Can they affect behaviour? Do you
know of any unusual experiments?
g) . What is EEG? Does it play any part in the study of
central nervous system activity?
Now read the text describing some methods used in studying
the brain to see whether you were right.
HOW THE BRAIN IS STUDIED
The brain is a very complex structure and great ingenuity
[ind^i'njunti] is required to discover how it operates. How can
we tell whether a particular part of the brain is associated
with a particular behavior? Historically, the question of
localization of brain function - whether certain brain areas
control specific acts or functions - has been a topic of debate.
Technological advances in recent years have made it
possible to study the brain more precisely [pri’saisli] than
ever before. It is now well established that some functions are
localized in fairly circumscribed, [’saikamskraibd] brain areas:
speech, recognition of spoken words, and the production of
32
motor responses are examples. AH areas of the human brain
are not equi potential. On the other hand, many different
brain regions are involved in such higher mental processes
as reasoning* and problem solving*. In addition many
functions are duplicated in more than one brain area. Thus,
if one part of the brain is damaged by concussion ([кап'кл$ап1
сотрясение мозга) or stroke (удар, инсульт), other areas
can often take over its functions.
The following m ethods are the ones used most often
by physiological psychologists and neurophysiologists
[njuTdfizi'oladeists] in studying* the brain.
1. Injury (травма) or surgical ablation (удаление - мед.).
Noting* the kind o f symptoms produced when tumors
([’tjuimaz] опухоли) or injuries damage certain parts of the
brain may give clues about functions controlled by the area.
Early observations that injury to the left side o f the brain
usually resulted in speech defects, whereas damage to the
right side did not, led to localization of a speech center in
the left cerebral hemisphere. Improved methods of locating*
the area of injury and assessing* the kind of language functions
disturbed have specified more exactly the areas involved in
different linguistic abilities.
In experiments with animals it is possible to remove
systematically parts of the brain (or destroy the tissue ([’tisju]
ткань (мед.)) electrically) and observe the kinds of defects
that result. Sometimes ablation operations are performed on
human patients when the removal of abnormal brain tissue is
essential to their well-being (for example, to remove tumors
or control epilepsy). Such patients are carefully studied to
assess the effects of the operation on their abilities.
2. Electrical or chemical stimulation. Stimulating* parts of
the brain with mild electrical currents produces effects on
* ing-forms used like nouns arc called gerunds {noting, Ь ш Д д
assessing, stimulating) or verbal nouns (reasoning probtem-soIs^iIge under­
standing).
. 3 Зак. 3300
behavior. Brain surgery on human patients is often done under
local anaesthesia [.asnis'fliizja] so the surgeon can tell (by the
patient’s responses when different parts are stimulated electri­
cally) which area to remove. From patient reports o f sensations
(ощущения) during stimulation, fairly accurate maps of the
cortex have been obtained.
Studies with permanently implanted electrodes in animals
help determine where sensory effects occur and where various
types of muscular activity are controlled.
Chemical stimulation has also been widely used to affect
behavior.
3. Electrical effects o f neural activity. When neural action
occurs, slight electrical currents are produced. By inserting at
appropriate ([a 'propriat] соответствующий) places electrodes
connected to measuring devices, the experimenter can detect
whether impulses starting at, say, the ear reach the part of
the brain where the electrodes are inserted.
The brain as a whole also produces rhythmical electrical
discharges. The record (['reko:d] запись, регистрация) of
these total brain discharges, known as an electroencephalo­
gram (EEG), plays its part in the study of central nervous
system activity.
R esu lts o b ta in e d by th e se m e th o d s fu r th e r o u r
psychological understanding.
Notes:
to discover; to assess
(инфинитив цели) чтобы выяснить/обнажить; чтобы оценить;
technological advances - технический прогресс
noting; stimulating
(герундий в функции подлежащего)
внимание к; стимулирование
брать на себя
take over
например, скажем
say (colloq.)
fiber, behavior, center - Amer. spelling
34
rv .
Look through the text and single out the main
problems raised.
V.
Read the text again and
state what has been a topic of debate;
give examples of functions localized in fairly circumscribed
brain areas;
prove that many functions (of the brain) are duplicated in
more than one brain area;
say what may give clues about brain functions;
-when ablation operations are performed on human
patients;
-how the surgeon can tell which area to remove;
point out what furthers our psychological understanding.
Words to be rem em bered:
assess v. - оценивать
associate v. - ассоциировать, соединять
control v. n. - контролировать, подавлять; управление
damage v. n. - повреждать,повреждение
debate v. n. - дискутировать, обсуждать: спор, полемика
determine v. - определять
device n. - прибор, устройство
disturb v. - нарушать (ход, функцию, равновесие и т.п.)
establish v. - устанавливать
fairly adv. - вполне
further adj. v. - дальнейший, дополнительный; содействовать,
способствовать
hemisphere n. - полушарие
ingenuity n. - изобретательность, искусность, мастерство
localize v. - обнаруживать точное местонахождение, относить к
определенному месту
locate HU устанавливать местонахождение
obtain V. шполучать
operate V. - оперировать, действовать
occur v. - происходить, случаться
particular adj. - определенный, специфический
remove v. - удалять
removal n. - удаление
reasoning n, - рассуждение, объяснение
result in v.n. - заканчиваться чем-либо, приводить к; результат
require v. - требовать, нуждаться в чем- либо
surgery п. - хирургия, операция
VI.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
equipotential areas; to give clues about functions; to remove
systematically parts o f the brain; to destroy the tissue electri­
cally; to observe the kinds o f defects that result; to control
muscular activity, to control epilepsy; mild electrical cur­
rents; to obtain fairly accurate maps o f the cortex; to implant
electrodes; to affect behaviour; the record of total brain
discharges; to further psychological understanding..
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
тема, вызывающая споры; технический прогресс; уже
твердо (четко) установлено; рассуждение и проблемное
мышление; вызвать реакцию (симптом); проведенные
ранее наблюдения; приводить к нарушениям (дефек­
там) речи; установить место повреждения; решить
какие (именно) языковые функции нарушены; оценить
влияние операции; мозг как целое; деятельность цент­
ральной нервной системы.
VII.
1. What general words are used in the two texts to cover
more specific ones and vice versa?
e.g. respiration, digestion, circulation, perspiration
- bodily activities
M
arteries, glands, joints, muscles,
skin, brain, heart, spinal cord,
receptors, nerve tissue
....................
- brain functions
......................
h ig h e r
m e n ta l
processes
2. Classify the following verbs according to your own
criteria:
assess, implant, observe, perform, control, operate, obtain,
remove, stimulate, insert, specify, determine, establish.
VUL
Fit the meaning and the word.
1). Clever and skilful (at making or inventing)
2). Have a result or effect on
3). Relating to one as distinct from others
4). Discover, show the position of
5). Make local, not general
6). Take place, happen
7). Decide or fix value of
8). Get, secure for oneself
9). Half a sphere
10). Answer, reaction
localize
response
hemisphere
assess
affect
ingenious
particular
occur
obtain
locate
IX.
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning.
a) speed y., mild, stimulus, equi potential, dilate, inhibit,
internal, duplicated, voluntary, increase.
b) response, constrict, intense, slow v., domineering, uni­
que, facilitate, decrease, external, compulsory, involuntary.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning.
a) affect, essential, injury, d eterm ine, involve (in),
debate, precise, remove, fairly, ablation, implant, mild;
b) removal, destroy, damage, discussion, establish, ra­
ther, slight, insert, associate (with), accurate, major,
influence.
X.
tm Form verbs from these nouns by means of conversion and
translate both.
Debate, advance, reason, record, speed, control, result,
function, study, influence, map, damage, experience, evidence.
Find the words that are used in the text
a) as a verb and an adjective
b) as a noun and an adjective
2. Fill in the table of derivatives.
verb
Noun
injure
essence
adjective
specification
operational
1. surgeon
2. ...
removable
respond
sense
strike
XI.
Check the word which does not belong (in form or
meaning).
38
1. observe
determine
locate
specify
5. disturb
injure
destroy
damage
2. removal
ablation
cerebral
surgery
3. duplicate
distribute
copy
double
4. intense
slight
equi potential
mild
6. need
require
involve
demand
8. fairly
7. brain
cortex
rather
hemisphere
particularly
tum or
bodily
XII.
Refer back to the text.
Find the “basic sentence” in each of the complex sentences
marked by the vertical lines. Translate the complex sentences.
GRAMMAR:
P A R TIC IP LES
XIII.
Pick out other sentences with participles from the text
(gerunds are marked by asterisks) and translate them. The
notes below will help you. Write out participles used as
adjectives with the nouns they refer to (mind the word
order).
XIV.
1. Read the notes and translate the examples given.
a). Place of the Participle. A participle before a noun usually
expresses some more permanent characteristic: it is more like
an adjective than a verb
an interesting book / quality o f a book/;
a broken window /th e way it looks/;
English-speaking Canadians;
long-playing records j
39
If we talk about
the problems discussed at the meeting
or the window broken last night,
(with aparticiple after a noun) we are thinking more of the
actions; the participle is like averb as well as an adjective.
More examples:
the only place le ft
the people taking p a rt (those taking part)
Most o f the people singing were students.
Many of the people questioned refused to answer.
b). Adjectival Participle clause (определительный прич.
оборот).Participle clauses can be used like adjective, to give
more information about nouns.
Most of the people invited to the reception were old friends.
N O TE that adjectival present participle clauses can only be
used to talk about actions that happen around the same
time as the main verb.
Can you see the girl dancing with your brother?
Anybody touching that wire will get an electric shock.
When there is a time difference between the actions of the two
verbs, participles cannot usually be used.
Do you know anybody who has lost a cat?
I want to talk to the person who broke that cup.
(Because o f this perfect participles are never possible in
adjectival clauses).
Translate the following paying attention to the words
“ играющий, игравший” :
Спроси (об этом) у ребят, играющих во дворе.
Человек, игравший в шахматы, не обратил на нас вни­
мания.
Человек, игравший на пианино на нашем вечере, мой
кузен.
40
Когда мы вошли, человек, игравший на пианино, оста­
новился.
Ученый, сделавш ий это откры тие, получил Н обе­
левскую премию.
c)
. Adverbal Participle Clause (обстоятельственный прич.
оборот).Participle clauses can also be used to say more about
the action of the verb, or about the idea expressed, by the
sentence as a whole. Used like this they are similar to adverbial
clauses.
N ot knowing what to do, I telephoned the police.
/Because I didn’t know .. ./
Used economically, one tin will last for at least a week.
/IfiX is used economically.../
Being unable to help in any other way, I gave her some
money.
jpBecause 1 was unable .../
Putting down my newspaper, T walked over to the window
and looked out.
/A fter I put down
Once deprived of oxygen, the brain dies.
m it is deprived..,,/
Adverbial clauses are common with perfect participles.
Having fa ile d to qualify as a doctor, I took up nursing.
Having finished all my letters, I had a glass o f milk and
went out.
d)
.Normally the subject of aparticiple clause is the same as:
the subject o f the main verb in a sentence. However, there are:
some very common expressions which break this rule.
Generaly speaking, men can run faster than women.
Judging from his expression, he is in a bad mood.
Considering everything, it wasn’t a bad holiday.
Supposing there was a storm, what would you do?
41
In other cases aparticiple clause can be given its own subject
(Absolute P articiple Construction - абсолю тный прич,
оборот).
Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed.
A ll the money having been spent, we started looking for
work.
When the clause expresses accompanying circumstances (со­
путствующие обстоятельства) the subject is often introdu­
ced by “with” ,
With Peter working in Birmingham, and Lucy travelling
most of the week, the house seems pretty empty.
Combine the sentences using Absolute Participle
Construction:
1) . A series of experiments has been made. The corpus
callosum fibers have been cut. There is no connection
between the two hemispheres.
2) . For many decades a certain disagreement remained
among scientists concerning the functional organization
of the human brain. One group o f scholars hypothesized
complex forms of mental processes are localized in
strictly circumscribed cortical areas. Another group
started from an opposite assumption and hypothesized
that complex mental processes are generated by the brain
as a whole and are more a result o f the entire brain
tissue rather than* of the activity o f strictly localized
groups of neurons.
A skeleton structure is suggested:
With ... and ... a certain disagreement concerning ... re­
mained ... decades.
* rather thaat5a i не Л Д И р ... чем.
42
XV.
1. Compare the forms: “interesting” Part. I (active
meaning) and “interested” Part. II (passive meaning).
To talk about the person or thing that makes us feel “in­
terested”, ‘‘excited” , “bored”, etc., we use Present Participle
(interesting, boring, exciting, etc.)
If a story is exciting you are excited when you read it.
After a tiring day, you feel tired.
Say what you think about the persons, things or notions fin
brackets) using Participles I or II.
If a compliment pleases a person...
/com plim ent, person/.
If aperson has become tired o f along trip...
/traveller, trip /
The boy’s questions puzzled his parents...
/questions, parents/.
Mr.Smith bores us with his m anner o f speaking...
/Sm ith, conversation, his listeners/
The sad news has broken his heart...
/heart, he, news/.
2. Compare the functions and translate the following.
He is a well-known scientist.
The method known to most students is widely used in
psycho-therapy.
Many psychologists are known to have been working at
that problem.
They have known each other for years.
She was talking to John when I saw her.
I heard them talking in a whisper.
Who is the man talking to Elizabeth?
After talking to you I always feel better.
Having talked to everybody in the room she left.
This time tomorrow they’ll be talking to the dean.
43
XVI.
Choose the appropriate form while reading the passage.
Every behavioral function is really a functional system,
which preserves a stable goal but uses different links of operative
behaviour to come to a (desired, desiring) result. The idea of
“functional systems” at complex “reflex circles” / this idea was
opposite to that o f the “ reflex a rc ’5/ was (formulating,
formulated) in the 1930s by two outstanding Russian scholars,
P.K.Anokhin and U.A.Bernstein, and was (developed,
developing) in a series of their works as well as in some pub­
lications of American authors /К .Pribram et al/. These ideas
were a (started, starting) point for the creation of a new branch
of physiological science - a “physiology of activity” (opposing,
opposed) to the “physiology of reactivity55. Of utmost impor­
tance is the fact that all higher behavioral processes are really
such complex functional systems, which are (based, basing)
on the coordinated functions /o r “constellations”/ of cereb­
ral zones (constructing, constructed) in such a way that separate
links of this system, can be (interchanged, interchanging) and
that such a change does not affect the whole functional system.
This approach is (associating, associated) with a radical
revision of the whole problem of “cerebral localization of func­
tions”. We do not start with any attempts to “localize” a complex
function in a (limited, limiting) part of the brain; rather we
try to discover how a functional system is (distributing,
distributed) in different parts of the brain, and the role that
every part of the brain plays in the realization of the whole
“functional system”.
XVII.
Combine each group of sentences to form one complex
sentence with participle clauses (groupwork). (Skeleton
structures are suggested to indicate possible approaches to some
sentences.)
44
a)
. Guy Fawkes was the leader of a band of conspirators.
They intended to blow up the Houses of Parliament. They
intended to do this while the King and his Ministers were in
session. Guy Fawkes’s memory is perpetuated (увековечить
память). There are firework displays. These are held on
November 5th each year.
- Guy Fawkes, whose memory . . . b y firework ... each year ,
was ...
b)
. No one was watching. The man first made sure o f this.
He climbed up the fire-escape (пожарная лестница). He
climbed up to a window on the first floor. He succeeded in
entering the house through the window. He was not observed.
...
- Haying f i r s t t h e man
unobserved.
...
to a first-floor
..,
through which
c)
. The English queue up (выстраиваться в очередь) for
public transport. They do so in an orderly way. Visitors from
the continent are surprised at this. They innocently join the
front of the queue. They do this when they first arrive in England.
Angry glares (свирепые взгляды) are given them. They cannot
understand this.
- Visitors ... a t the . . . in which
f i r s t . . , they innocently ...
an d they
...
when, on
XVIII.
Say what books you borrow from the library. Use the
following:
nice-looking, interesting, exciting, boring, dealing (with),
chosen, recommended, exhibited, translated, published, sold
(out) devoted (to).
Get ready to describe:
a)
b)
c)
d)
an exciting experiment,
an embarrassing situation,
some disappointing news,
methods used in studying the brain.
XIX.
Fill in the table of Participle forms (use the verb ‘to do’).
Active
Passive
to express
sinTuItaneousness
to express
priority
READING
AND
DISCUSSION
XX.
1. Read the text and identity the topic:
a) laboratory and real life situations;
b) concentration;
c) the brain under stress.
All types of stress study, whether under laboratory or real
life situations, study mechanisms for increasing the arousal
level (уровень мозговой активности) of the brain. Increased
arousal is the state which in general terms we describe as
being “ keyed-up” for something. It is perhaps most obvious
(это очевидно) immediately before examinations and is then
associated with very high levels of excretion of adrenalin or
noradrenalin.
The brain blood flow studies (изучение кровоснабжения
мозга) show that reciting (проговаривание наизусть) the
days of the week and months of the year increases blood flow
in appropriate areas, whereas problem solving which demands
intense concentration of a reasoning type produces much larger
changes in the distribution of blood in the brain. What we do
not know is what happens if problem solving exercises are
repeated over and over again, perhaps for days on end (нес­
колько дней подряд).
46
Between these basic studies o f brain function and real life
situations there is still a considerable gap (значительный раз­
рыв) but reasonable extrapolation seems possible to try and
understand what happens to the brain. Thus work may be
relatively automatic - as with typing, for instance. It requires
intense concentration and repetition during the learning phase
to establish a pattern in the brain. Then the typist’s fingers
automatically move to hit the appropriate keys (клавиш и) as
she reads the words on the copy. Indeed many typists can
maintain a conversation while continuing to type.
However, when she gets tired she makes mistakes, especi­
ally transposing letters, m uch m ore frequently. T o overco­
m e th is sh e h a s to ra ise h e r lev el o f a ro u s a l a n d
concentration but beyond (за пределами) a certain point
the autom aticity is lost and thinking about hitting the keys
leads to m ore mistakes.
Other jobs involve intense concentration such as holding
bottles of whisky up to a strong light and turning them upside
down to look for particles (частички) o f dirt falling down.
This sounds quite easy but experience teaches that workers
can do this for only about 30 m inutes before they start making
a mistake. This is partly because the number o f occasions
(случаи) with dirt in the bottle is low and the arousal level,
therefore, falls. D.Broadbent and his collegues at the MRC
(Medical Research Centre, Applied Psychology U nit, Camb­
ridge) have shown that devices to raise arousal level will usually
increase the accuracy o f looking for relatively rare events. A
recent study o f the effect o f loss o f sleep in young doctors
showed that in tests involving a challenge to their medical
judgement (сомнение во врачебной компетентности) when
short o f sleep they raised their arousal level and became better
at tests of grammatical reasoning as well.
2. Before reading the text again fill in this table (timed
activity).
47
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
'concentrate
ex'crete |i:j
distribute
’automate [o:]
extrapolate
trans’pose
a’rouse [au]
concen’tration
concert* trated
Now complete these sentences using the words from the
table (timed activity).
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
. People who suffer from dyslexia sometimes... letters while
reading. Thus BE may be read as EB.
. When hum an beings are under stress o r tension,
adrenalin is ... into the blood.
. ... involves applying the results o f observation in one area
to a related area, where it is felt they might be relevant.
. In capitalist countries th e ... o f wealth is very uneven. There
is a great difference between the rich and the poor.
. Many chemicals, especially in ... form-, are lethal.
. Normally elephants are timid animals, but w h en ... they
can be extremely dangerous.
3. Here are some sentences connected with the text.
Make a sentence to follow each using all the phrases given
(groupwork).
a)
. We know what happens to the brain in the short term,
perhaps for days on end
what we do not know is
if problem solving exercises are repeated
over and over again
what happens
b)
. When a typist gets tired, she tends to make mor
mistakes.
beyond a certain point
to overcome this tendency
but
48
the automaticity is lost
she has to raise her level o f arousal and concentration
and thinking about hitting the keys leads to more
mistakes
c). The level of concentration required for some jobs is not high,
such as holding bottles of whisky up to a strong light
other jobs require intense concentration
to look for particles o f dirt falling down
and turning them upside down
4. Now read through the first three paragraphs of the
passage quickly to try and find the answers to these
questions.
a) . What is increased arousal level o f the brain associated
with?
b) . What physiological effect on the brain does problem
solving have? What happens if problem solving exercises
are repeated over and over again?
c ) . Does the author consider that basic studies o f brain
function are relevant to investigations o f real life
situations?
d) . What example does the author give to support his
contention that typing can be relatively automatic?
5. Read the text to the end and say why people make
mistakes.
6. Read the text again if necessary to say whether you agree
with the writer on all points.
XXI.
1. Study the diagram which summarises the passage
clinical
_ experimental
— “—>
..
impression
studies
4 3 uc. 3300
»*
...
--------> hypothesis
49
2. Now read the text and find out the nature of the experiment.
PERSONALITY DISORDERS:
PSYCHOPATHIC PERSONALITY
There is no well-supported theory of psychopathy; many
factors are involved that may vary from case to case. Current
research focuses on biological determinants and on the qualities
of the parent-child relationship that reinforce (усиливать,
подкреплять) psychopathic styles of coping with reality.
The clinical impression that the psychopathic Individual
experiences (чувствовать, испытывать) little anxiety
(тревожность) about future discomforts or punishments has
been supported by experimental studies. One study compared
two groups of adolescent male delinquents. The experimenters
tested galvanic skin response (GSR) under stress. Dummy
(ложные) electrodes were attached to each subject’s leg, and
he was told that in 10 minutes he would be given a very strong
but not harmful shock. (A large clock was visible so that the
subject knew precisely when the shock was supposed to occur;
no shock was actually administered). The two groups showed
no difference in GSR measures during periods of rest or in
response to auditory or visual stimulation. However, during
the 10 minutes of shock anticipation, the nonpsychopathic
group showed significantly more tension than the psychopathic
group, and at the moment when the clock indicated shock was
due, most of the nonpsychopathic delinquents showed an
abrupt drop in skin resistance (indicating a sharp increase in
anxiety); none of the psychopaths showed this reaction (Lippert
& Senter, 1966). Other studies in prison have shown that
psychopaths do not learn to avoid shocks as quickly as normal
o r neurotic individuals do, nor evidence (показывать,
демонстрировать) as much autonomic nervous system activity
as other prisoners under a variety of conditions (Hare, 1970).
These findings have led to the hypothesis that psychopathic
individuals may have been born with an underreactive
50
Autonomic nervous system; this would explain why they seem
to require so much excitement and why they fail to respond
normally to the threats of danger that deter (удержать) most
people from antisocial acts. Interpretations must be made with
caution (осторожность), however. It is possible that psy­
chopaths view experimental situations as something of a game
and they may try to play it “extra cool” by attempting to control
their responses.
3. Make the right choice:
• The text describes
a) antisocial behaviour;
b) parental influences;
c) biological factors.
• Psychopathic delinquents under stress show
a) sharp increase in anxiety;
b) an abrupt drop in GSR;
c) no reaction.
• The findings have led to the hypothesis that
, a) psy-ths can control their responses;
b) psy-ths reactivity is very high;
c) psy-ths may have been born with an underreactive
autonomic nervous system.
4. Using the diagram and the answers give a 2 min. summary
of the text. Record your summary.
XXII.
1. The text can be described as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
factual,
humorous,
critical,
documentary.
ft
Read the text carefully and make the right choice. Answer
the questions that follow.
TH E GLARK-TR1MBLE EXPERIMENTS
A convenient starting point is provided by the famous ClarkTrimble experiments of 1935. Clark-Trimble was not primarily
a physicist, and his great discovery of the Graduated Hostility
(антагонизм, отталкивание) of Things was made almost
accidentally. During some research into the relation between
periods of the day and human bad temper, Clark-Trimble, a
leading Cambridge psychologist, came to the conclusion that
low human dynamics (слабый тонус) in the early morning
could not sufficiently explain the apparent Hostility of Things
at the breakfast table - the way honey gets between the fingers,
the unfoldability of newspapers, etc.
In the experiments which finally confirmed him in his view,
and which he demonstrated before the Royal Society in London,
Clark-Trimble arranged four hundred pieces of carpet in ascending
degrees of quality, from coarse matting to priceless Chinese silk.
Pieces of toast and marmalade, graded, weighed, and measured,
were then dropped on each piece of carpet, and the marmaladedownwards incidence* was statistically analysed. The toast fell
right-side-up every time on the cheap carpet, except when the
cheap carpet was screened from the rest (in which case the toast
didn’t know that Clark-Trimble had other and better carpets),
and it fell marmalade-downwards every time on the Chinese silk.
Most remarkable of all, the marmalade-downwards incidence
for the intermediate grades was found to vary exactly with the
quality of carpet.
The success of these experiments naturally switched ClarkTrimble’s attention to further research on resistentia, a fact which
was directly responsible for the tragic and sudden end to his
career when he stepped on Щ garden rake (грабли) at the
* the:marmatful6-<kJwnwards !»si#nce
with marmalade-covered side down.
Ш
cases ^incidents) of toast falling
Cambridge School of Agronomy. In the meantime, Noys and
Orangenbacker had been doing some notable work in America.
Noys carried out literally thousands of experiments, ft which
subjects of all ages and sexes, sitting in chairs of every
conceivable kind, dropped various kinds of pencils. In only
three cases did the pencil come to rest within easy reach (в
пределах досягаемости). Crangenbacker’s work in the socialindustrial field, on the relation of human willpower to specific
problems such as whether a train or subway will stop with
the door opposite you on a crowded platform, or whether
there will be a mail box anywhere on your side of the street,
was attracting much attention.
From “Report on Resistentialism”.
2. In a short sentence, say what was proved (according to
the writer) by the Clark-Trimble experiments.
3. What do you think is the writer’s purpose in describing
these experiments?
XXIII.
Which of these would you call a key factor in the ability to
reason?
a) the level o f arousal of the subject,
b) the amount of sleep the subject has had,
c) the extent to which the subject has been taught to
reason Prove your po in t
(See ex. XX)
XXIV.
Go back to the text “PERSONALITY DISORDERS” and
say which of the author’s conclusions you agree with and
why. Think if there are any other factors to be taken into
consideration.
Make use o f the following: I hold a similar view while I
accept that
there’s no denying that
it seems reasonable
to assume .., the author neglected (omitted) a very important
aspect of the problem.
Do you know of any other biological studies? How valid
are they?
XXV.
1. Read the text and describe the brain functions using Fig.l
below that presents a very speculative attempt to summarize
the research findings.
MAJOR AND MINOR HEMISPHERES
It has long been known that the human brain consists of
two so-called hemispheres that appear, superficially at least,
to be identical. These two halves, which we will call LH (Left
Hemisphere) and RH (Right Hemisphere) have, however,
quite distinct functions. In righthanded people - and for
simplicity, we can restrict our discussion to them - the LH
may be said, at least roughly, to control the right half of the
body, and the RH the left half (actually, the connectivities
are somewhat more complex but we will not go into such
details here). Most importantly, the two halves of the brain
appear to have two quite distinct modalities of thought. The distinct functions of the hemispheres of the brain be­
gan to be dramatically illustrated by patients who, after
suffering from extremely severe forms of epilepsy, had their
two brain halves surgically separated. In normal people the
two hemispheres are connected by a part of the brain called
the corpus callosum. When this is cut, no direct communication
between the two halves remains possible.
Studies with so-called split-brain subjects have made clear
the striking differences between the functions of the two
hemispheres. The major, LH governs our ability to express
ourselves in language. It can perform many complicated
54
sequential (sequence-sequential) and analytic activities and is
skilled in mathematical computations (computer-computation).
The minor, RH can comprehend very simple language. It can
respond to simple nouns by selecting object such as a nut or
comb, and it can even respond to associations o f these objects.
But it cannot comprehend more abstract linguistic forms. If
the RH is presented with such simple commands as “wink”,
“nod”, “shake head”, or “smile” , it seldom responds. The
RH can add simple two-digit numbers, but can do little beyond
this in the way of calculation.
Fig. % How the brain divides its work.
Research with both split-brain and normal subjects indicates
that different functions are specialized in either the left or
right hemisphere. The cerebral locations for some of these
abilities have not been firmly established by research though.
Although the RH may deserve the term “minor”, it is not
without special abilities of its own. It appears to have a highly
developed spatial and pattern sense. It is superior to the LH in
55
constructing geometric and perspective drawings. It can assemble
coloured blocks to match a complex design much more
effectively than the left. And studies of the electrical impulses
given off by the brain (EEG) suggest that during a verbal task
activity increases in the LH, whereas during a spatial task activity
increases in the right (Ornstein, 1977).
Some researchers believe that the minor hemisphere plays
a special role in musical and artistic abilities, emotions, and
dreaming. They would separate the analytical scientist or
mathematician from the creative artist on the basis of the
relative dominance of their cerebral hemispheres. There is also
considerable evidence that the RH is essentially the seat of
intuition and that it thinks quite independently o f the LH.
Some hypothesize that the two hemispheres think in modes
different from one another. The LH thinks, so to speak, in an
orderly, sequential, and, we might call it, logical fashion. The
RH, on the other hand, appears to think in terms of-holistic
images and metaphors. More evidence is needed, however, to
substantiate (substance-substantial-substantiate) such claims.
The specialization of the two hemispheres appears to
develop along with language developm ent. If the left
hemisphere of a young child is damaged, the right one can
take over the language functions without too much difficulty.
Left-hem isphere damage in an adult, however, almost
invariably produces language disability. The fact that righthandedness is the norm for human beings is probably related
to the fact that the left hemisphere controls speech.
There is some evidence that children who have a special
reading problem called dyslexia (they tend to read words back­
wards or to confuse d's with b's and pfs) may have spatial
abilities that are represented, in both hemispheres rather than
primarily in the. right, as is the usual case. Bilateral (lateralunilateral-bilateral) representation of spatial functions might
overload the linguistic hemisphere (the left) and interfere with
its functioning (Whitelson, 1977).
56
2. Using other available information (e.g. XVI) state your
criticism of the author’s arguments.
Here are some expressions you may need:
I agree entirely
it's hardly likely t h a t I doubt i f . . .
LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
XXVI.
Listen to the passage dealing with the physiology of colour
and tell the difference between the two psychologically pure
colours mentioned.
UNIT III
READING
TECHUIQUES
I.
1. Look at the way different parts of the sentence are
emphasized:
a) I t was Wundt who opened the first formal psychological
laboratory in Leipzig in 1879.
b) . I t was the first formal psychological laboratory that
Wundt opened in Leipzig in 1879.
c ) .I t was in Leipzig that Wundt opened the first formal
psychological laboratory in 1879.
d) . I t was in 1879 that Wundt opened the first formal
psychological laboratory in Leipzig.
2. Find the elements of the same construction in the
following sentences and translate them:
a) . It was L.S. Vygotsky’s initial thesis that has influenced
the further development of psychology in the USSR.
b) . It was J.B. Watson who founded the behavioristic appro­
ach in psychology.
c) . It was in 1962 that the American association for
Humanistic Psychology held its first national meeting.
d) . It is these qualities that are characteristic of self-actua­
lizing people that we now turn our attention to.
e) . It is through the utilization of such mental tools as
images, symbols and concepts that man has been able
to free himself from his physical environment.
f) . It was A.R.Luria who investigated the changes in psychic
processes occuring with local lesions
пора­
жение) of the brain.
58
g) . It is only recently, though psychologists have been in­
vestigating the problem of thinking for many years that
they have tried to find out what happens when we think.
h) . It is well to remember that it is not just the event that
elicits ([i'lisit] вызывать) responses, but the person’s
subjective experience of the event.
i) . It is only through the realiziation of our potentialities,
both emotional and intellectual that we can add zest
(вкус) and joy to life.
II.
In the following passage all the italicized words refer to
something mentioned in the text. Read the passage carefully
and say what they refer to.
One of the methods to measure creativity may involve
simply some count of the number of creative products that
each individual has produced, but more often it involves
judgements or ratings (оценка). A second general method
employed is that o f identifying by some procedure a group of
individuals who are highly creative in a given area. The
characteristics of the individuals in this highly creative group
are then compared with those o f some appropriate less creative
group to determine what characteristics distinguish the form er
(первый) from the latter (последний).
A num ber o f in te restin g findings have em erged
(появиться) from the work completed to date*. Some of these
will be described to illustrate the nature of the progress made
in this field.
One question concerning which data are available (име­
ются) from several studies is that involving the nature of the
relation between performance on intelligence tests and crea­
tivity. The results may be summarized in two statements, both
o f which are important: (1) Within a highly creative group
*to date Ш so far
59
there is ordinarily little or no correlation between performance
on the tests of intelligence and degree of creativity. (2) The
average intelligence of the members of a highly creative group
is nearly always high.
The most extensive program of research now in progress
concerned with the identification of individual characteristics
related is that being carried out at the Institute of Personality
Assessment and Research at the University of California at
Berkley, Calif. Among those participating in this program are
D.MacKinnon, R.Crutchfield, H.Gough, F.Barron, and
R.Helson.
TEXT
STUDY
ль
Before reading the text about thinking and feeling say which
of the following statements you agree with:
a)
b)
c)
d)
. Feeling is more important for people than thinking.
. Thinking is used to support our feelings.
. Feeling is a barrier to thinking.
. Thinking is a means to clarify (прояснять) emotions.
TH IN K IN G AND FEELING
There is a current belief among many that gut (instinctive)
feeling is what really matters and that thinking is just messing
(запутывание) around with words. This is based on the expe­
rience that so-called logical thinking can be used to prove any
point of view. All this arises from our mistaken insistence that
logical validity is enough. Since with different starting per­
ceptions perfectly logical thinking can lead to contradictory
conclusions, it is not surprising that there has been some
disillusionment with thinking in favour (в пользу) of gut
feeling.
60
Ultimately it must be feeling that matters most. Feeling is
what makes a human being human. In the end it is to satisfy
our emotions and values that we arrange our actions. It is this
very importance of feeling that makes feeling so necessary.
A friend of mine was once driving along a country road when
he saw a woman being knocked down by a car ahead of him.
Perhaps it was a hit-and-run driver or perhaps the driver
hadn't even noticed. My friend stopped his car to help the
woman. Another driver came up and, seeing the parked car
and the injured woman, jumped to a conclusion and, getting
out of his car, he hit my friend and broke his jaw (челюсть).
There was no doubt about the strength of the driver's feelings.
Unfortunately his perception was faulty and had misdirected
his feelings.
Feelings are a sort of actions. The purpose of thought is to
prepare us for action, to prepare something for us to feel
about. Thinking doesn’t mean a laborious[ld'borias] calculation
(вычисление) as to how much feeling is required, but an
attempt to direct attention and clarify perception. Thinking
should never attempt to be a substitute for feeling. The job of
thinking is to clarify and arrange perception. It is this clearer
view that then excites our feeling. The feeling may still be
wrong, misplaced or exaggerated, but that is a much lesser
danger than trying to abolish (уничтожить) feeling.
In practice it is extremely difficult to think first and feel
second. The overwhelming (подавляющая) tendency is to feel
first and then use thinking to back up and support the feeling.
The tendency is so overwhelming that even the most intelligent
people express an instant feeling-based judgement and then
use their thinking to back it up (подтвердить) in an essay
or discussion.
The very first step in teaching thinking must be to provide
a bypass (обходной путь) to this instant judgement by requiring
the thinker to direct attention to all the relevant and interesting
II
poin ts in the situation. T h u s in ad d itio n to his natural feelings
he d irects atten tio n to th e o th e r aspects.
A nine-year-old girl was very upset because her long hair
had been cut - at her own request. In a sulk she locked herself
in her room. In the morning, to her parents' surprise, she
emerged smiling and in good humour (настроение). She
explained that in a thinking lesson at school she had been
taught deliberately to look at all the plus and minus points in
a situation and she had applied the process to her haircut. As
a result she could see that it would make swimming easier
and would have many other advantages, so she was happy
about it. In this girl's case the technique helped her to use
her thinking to explore (исследовать) the situation instead
o f just backing up her initial reaction. Feelings may change
as a result o f an enlarged perception.
W e tru st o u r feelings because w e c a n n o t see how th ey can
be w rong. Feelings are, indeed, always right - b u t w ithin the
universe created by o u r percep tio n a t th e tim e. U nfortunately
it is very difficult fo r us to accept th a t o u r perceptions m ay
b e w rong. A nd even m o re difficult fo r u s to accept th a t o u r
percep tio n s m ay be lim ited.
N otes:
gut feeling is w h at really m atters - и н с т и н к т и в н о е ч у в ст ­
во — вот ч то важ но;
v ery + n o u n (this very im portance; th e very first step) - usually used w ith th e definite article - (тот) самы й;
as to how m u ch - отно си тел ьн о то го , сколько.
IV.
Look through the text and single out the main points.
V.
Read the text again and
62
sa y if logical validity is enough to prove an y p o in t o f view;
describe an exam ple o f how faulty percep tio n m isd irected
feelings;
specify th e essence o f feeling;
th e purp o se o f thinking;
see i f you can tell w hat the general tendency o f using thinking is
w hat m akes teach in g thinking so difficult;
explain th e purpose o f th e tw o exam ples given.
W ords to be rem em bered:
arrange v. - организовать
apply v. - применять
advantage n. - преимущество
accept v. - принять, допускать
current adj. - текущий, настоящий
contradictory adj. - противоречивый
conclusion n. - заключение
clarify I» - прояснять
deliberately adv. - намеренно
emerge v. - появляться
excite v. - возбуждать
exaggerate v. - преувеличивать
extremely adv. - крайне, очень
explore v. - йшледовать
faulty adj. -«ошибочный
insistence n. - Щ настойчивое убеждение; настойчивость
initial adj. - первоначальный, исходный
instant adj. - моментальный, непосредственный
to provide v. - обеспечивать
prove v. - доказать
satisfy v. - удовлетворить
substitute v. it - заменить; заменитель
support v, i\. - поддержать, подкреплять; помощь, поддержка
technique n. - метод, методика ,
universe я - мир, вселенная
validity п. обоснованность, весомость, действеннш »
value шш$ш»н ш ш ценность
6
V I.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
a hit-and-run driver; to jump to a conclusion; a sort of ac­
tion; so-called logical thinking; something for us to feel
about; calculation as to how m uch feeling is required; a
much lesser danger; an instant feeling-based judgement;
the very first step; to provide a bypass to the judgement; in
this girl’s case; within the universe.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
доказать любую точку зрения; неудивительно, что; в
пользу чего-либо; в конце концов; удовлетворить
чувство; организовать действия; сделать поспешный вы­
вод; нет сомнения; прояснить восприятие; заменитель
чувства; вызывать чувство; преувеличенное чувство; на
практи ке / ф актически; сначала думать, а потом
чувствовать; подавляющая тенденция; поддержать и
подкрепить чувство; выражать суждение, основанное
н а чувствах; направлять внимание на что-либо; кроме
своих естественных чувств; по собственной просьбе; к
удивлению своих родителей; применить процесс к чемулибо; в результате чего-либо; иметь преимущество;
вместо подтверж дения своей первоначальной ре­
акции.
VII.
What adjectives and verbs from the text can be used with the
following nouns:
thinking; feeling; perception;
experience; judgement.
VIII.
Fit the meaning and the word:
64
1). Historical significance and personalized
meaning for individuals of certain realities
2). Make clear or understandable
3). Show that something is true
4). Put in order
5)..Person or thing taking the place of
or acting for another
6). Make something seem larger,
better, or worse, etc. than it really is
7). Generally accepted; in com m on
use at present
8). Belonging to; affecting all
9). Absence of agreement
10). Give a person what he wants or needs
prove
arrange
substitute
universal
current
satisfy
contradiction
clarify
value
exaggerate
IX.
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning.
a) advantage, constant, excite, relevant, faulty, contra­
dictory, accept, create, valid, in theory, overwhelming.
b) reject, faultless, invalid, in practice, irrelavant, dis­
advantage, consistent, current, inhibit, rare, destroy.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning.
a) ultim ately, technique, excite, conclusion, em erge,
relevant, purpose, initial, support (v), instant, provide,
explore.
b) decision, first, connected with, back up, supply, in the
end, momentary, appear, method, investigate, goal,
arouse.
X.
1. Use your dictionary and fill in the table with the words
given below as far as possible. Note the correct pronunciation
of the suffix ‘-ate’ in verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
5 3 u . 3300
65
jeit|
|
pa
noun
verb
[at]
adjective
exaggerate, estim ate, advocate, deliberate, delegate,
accurate, evaluate, anticipate, senate, postulate, tolerate,
adequate, consulate, immediate, intimate, communicate,
associate, satiate.
2. Form verbs with a negative meaning by adding the prefix
‘mis-’ and translate them:
apply, believe, direct, govern, judge, lead, place, take,
trust, interpret, use.
3. Fill in the table of derivatives:
verb
noun
adjective
applicable
adverb
contradict
emergence
extremely
tk excitation
2.
initiative
practise
satisfaction
conclusive
insist (on)
technically
1.substitution
2.
expressively
acceptable
validate
1. evaluate
2.
66
X I.
Check the word which doesn't belong:
1. initial
2. mistrustful 3. proof
4. validity
current
invalid
insistence
faulty
extreme
faultless
conclusion
arbitrary
final
unacceptable judgement
contradictory
5. purpose
6. explore
7. support
8. deliberately
arrange
aim
research
bodily
goal
emerge
order
ultimately
substitute
investigate
advantage
universally
XII.
Translate the first two paragraphs of the text.
G R A M M A R : THE
INFINITIVE
XIII.
Pick out sentences with the infinitive from the text and
translate them. The notes below will help you.
XIV.
Read the notes and translate the examples given.
a). The infinitive has the same grammatical categories as
finite verbs (voice, aspect, time correlation). They are formed
in a similar way. The first element is in the form of the
INFINITIVE:
e.g. 1). It’s easy to make mistakes. /Simple infinitive may
refer to the present (1)
2)
. Try not to be late.
or to the future (2)/
3)
. Г т sorry not to have /Perfect form expresses
telephoned earlier.
priority/
67
4). It was nice to be sitting there /Continuous form is.
with you.
used for actions going
on at the time we are
talking about/
5) . I did not expect to be invited. /Usually only Simple and
6) . You ought to have been
Perfect infinitive may
punished for what you did.
be Passive/
b). The infinitive may be used to define the word (noun or
adjective) it refers to.
e.g. 1). He was the first scientist to develop this theory.
2) . The problems to be discussed at the next meeting are
very interesting.
3) . We had enough money to spend on books.
4) . She was nice to talk to.
5) . Such an argument is impossible to object to.
6) . It is too good to be true.
NOTE: in sentence patterns similar to examples 4, 5 we keep
the preposition with the infinitive.
c) . The infinitive is used to talk about people's purposes,
the reason why they do things:
e.g. 1). 1 opened the door (in order) to let her in.
2). We left early (so as) to be in time for the train.
d)
. The infinitive may be used as an object,
cf. 1). I want to buy a bicycle. (I will buy it).
2). I want my father to buy a bicycle. (My father will buy it).
I want him to buy a bicycle.
In the second sentence the agent of the infinitive is different
from the subject of the sentence and the object is made up of
two words ‘my father* and ‘to buy’. This construction is called
THE COMPLEX OBJECT.
68
NOTE: after such verbs as Iо know, to suppose, to believe,
to consider, to regard, to expect, to want, to hate,
would like, to report, to announce, the infinitive 'is
used with the particle “to%
e.g. 1). We wanted Susan to play the piano,
2). I believe him to have graduated from Cambridge.
After such verbs as to see, to hear, to watch, to feel, Щ
notice, to observe (denoting perception); to let (позволять)
and to make (заставлять) the infinitive is used without “to*
e.g. 1). We heard somebody knock at the door;
2). He made me do all the work again.
NOTE: in sentence patterns similar to example 1, (after
verbs denoting perception), the participle is also
possible:
e.g. We heard somebody knocking at ,the door.
e). The agent of the infinitive may be introduced by the
preposition “for” in the following construction:
e.g. 1). There are many problems fo r people to solve.
2). He waited fo r the assistant to finish the experiment.
3). For the thinking process to occur it is necessary to be
stimulated by the environment.
4) . It was necessary fo r the experiment to be perform ed
at that very time.
5) . It is essential fo r the physical world to be defined and
measured by the instruments of physical science.
XV.
Compare the forms and tell the difference in meaning:
1). She had nobody to help her.
1). You ought to have asked my opinion.
3). It’s pleasant to be listening to you.
69
4) . Children like to be told fairy tales.
5) . The telegram was to have been sent two days earlier.
XVI.
Choose the appropriate form while reading the passage.
In all cases diagnosis should (precede, be preceded) treat­
ment. Human problems can never (separate, be separated)
from the unique characteristics of the person involved. It is
well to (remember, be remembered) that it is not just the
event that elicits responses, but the person’s subjective expe­
rience of the event. What the person brings to the situation in
terms of his present interests and feelings, his past history,
and general background can (determine, be determined) his
willingness to (change, be changed), his ability to (change,
be changed) and how he will (change, be changed).
The more we know about the person or persons to (help,
be helped), the greater are the chances for success. It is wise
to (remember, be remembered) that no major act of behaviour
is determined by a single variable (f'veariabl] переменная).
Human beings are far too complex to (change, be changed)
through the mani pulation of asingle condition in the totality
of their life spaces.
XVII.
Combine the following sentences according to the model
using the Complex Object.
e.g, a). Thinking has many characteristics in common with
all other responses of the organism. Most scientists
suppose so.
- Most scientists suppose thinking to have many cha­
racteristics in common with other responses.
b). Emotions affect our behaviour. Everyone may notice it.
- Everyone may notice emotions affect our behaviour.
70
1) . Self-concept influences people’s ability to solve problems
effectively. We know it.
2) . The rats were running in a maze. The experimenter was
observing them.
3) . The theory is correct. Scientists don’t believe it and are
planning a number of experiments.
4) . The experiment lasted two hours. I didn’t expect it.
5) . You must give , me all the information on this subject.
I want it immediately.
6) . Common sense experience tells us that intelligence and
creative thinking are directly connected. But scientists don’t
suppose so.
7) . The monkey took a stick and knocked the banana down. We
saw it.
XVIII.
Answer the questions using infinitives:
a) . What do you need these for:
e.g. I need a book to read on my way home.
Some more practice; a reward (вознаграждение, подкреп­
ление); a number of experiments; new ways; unique tools;
special techniques.
b)
. What is necessary / useful / important / etc. for people
to do to develop thinking competences.
c)
. What is more enjoyable / unpleasant / dangerous /
interesting for you to do:
to invite friends or to be invited by them; to give presents
or to be given them; to forget somebody or to be forgotten;
to love somebody or to be loved; to experiment or to be
experimented on; to read or to be read aloud to?
d)
. What do you expect / want / dislike / suppose those
persons to do under certain circumstances: doctors, scientists,
parents, teachers, actors.
71
e). Suppose you are back after a long absence. What do you
see / hear / notice your parents / brother / sister / wife f
husband / roommates do?
XIX.
Fill in the table of infinitive forms, (use the verb “to do”)
active
to express
simultaneousness
or reference to future
—to express priority
___
|
passive
fact
|
process
not
normally
used
—
READING AND DISCUSSION
XX.
Look through the passages from A to E which contain
examples of inadequate ways of thinking and match them
with the titles (timed activity).
SOCIAL
PRESSU RE;
DRAW ING
WRONG
CONCLUSIONS; INABILITY TO USE SYMBOLS; RIGID
['ridfidj THINKING; MAGICAL THINKING.
A). This kind of a thinking pattern occurs when a solution
(решение) to a problem is thought about in an either-or
manner. Statements such as “You either can do it my way or
not at all” and “There are only two possible solutions to this
question” reflect such a pattern. People who come from
background (социальная среда) where everything is evaluated
in terms of right or wrong, black or white, good or bad
usually have difficulties in problem solving. As a result they fail
72
to evaluate, the many alternatives present in any complex
problem.
B)
. Many people come from backgrounds where thinking
occured in a mystical way. The reasons for a certain difficulty
were attributed to the position of the stars or the phases of
the Moon. The fact that a person is continually plagued ([pleigd]
мучиться) with problems results from his being born on a
certain day or at a particular hour. There are those who have
been led to believe that only certain people can help you
solve a problem, those gifted (одаренный) with certain magic
powers (силы).
C)
. Some people have never been given opportunity to
think long enough about a situation to reach an accurate
conclusion. Consequently, their analyses of a situation is
incomplete; they do not collect the necessary information.
Some parents demand (требовать ) of their children that
they make their decision immediately. They indirectly teach
the child not to tolerate (терпеть ) an indecisive moment
or ambiguous (двусмысленный ) situation. Thus the child
never gets any practice in finding out what the factors are in
making a decision.
D)
. Some families encourage (поощрять) their children
to think like everyone else or to accept what they are told and
what they are given to read without question. After their early
years those so trained (наученные таким образом ) tend to
accept ideas automatically from their peer (ровесник) group
and from political groups.
E)
.People who are familiar with and who can manipulate
signs ([sain] знак) are likely to think more effectively. One of
the reasons that: school is such a necessary part of everyone’s
experience is that in school we learn how to use words and to
think about ideas and concepts. Students often feel that they
are learning little from school because they forget many of the
specific facts to which they are exposed. However a more impor­
tant goal of education involves the learning of tools (средства)
and techniques (these would include the use of words and
concepts) through which one can learn to think more
effectively in order to solve problems later in life.
XXI.
1. Study the plan of the text below:
a) . Traditional approach to the teaching of thinking.
b) . The problem of validity of thinking.
c) . The major cause of inadequacy [in’asdikwcisi] of thin­
king.
d) . Types of errors (['era] ошибка) in thinking.
2. Read the text dividing it into paragraphs according to the
given plan.
ERRORS IN THINKING
Our traditional approach to the teaching of thinking is
based on the dangerous fallacy [’faelasi] that error-free thin­
king is good thinking. And by errors we mean logical errors. We
have considered it sufficient to demonstrate the different types
of logical errors and to criticize them when they arise. With
our more successful pupils the result has been our highly
esteemed (высоко ценимое) error-free academic thinking.
This has been held up as the goal of all training in thinking.
The perfection of this form of thinking rests on three things:
fluency (беглость), freedom from error, logical consistency
(последовательность). Fluency arises from articulateness
(отчетливое произношение) and a large repertoire frepatwa:]
of idioms, concepts, and referral № ■ material. Fluency
as such has very little to do with skill in thinking and much
too often masquerades (['maeskareid] маскировать) as such.
Freedom from error means freedom from visible error; this is
not only inadequate [in'aadikwat] as a criterion [krai'tidrianl of
74
skillful thinking but positively dangerous, since an argument
that is free from visible error is taken to be correct when in
fact it may be quite wrong, as we shall see later. In a similar
manner logical consistency or internal validity is insufficient
([ins<?'fi$dnt] недостаточный) or dangerously misleading (вво­
дящий в заблуждение). There are many logically consistent
arguments that are based on unacceptable value systems or
inadequate perception. It is relatively easy to define logical
errors and to spot (заметить) them. The next step is to assume
(допустить) that an argument that avoids (избегать) these
errors is valid. Everyone would agree that logical errors make
for (приводить к) bad thinking. But we are completely
unjustified (неоправданный) in assuming the opposite: that
freedom from logical error makes for good thinking. A faulty
computer will give the wrong answers. A faultless computer
will not give the right answers: it will only give answers that
are consistent with the data it has been given and the program
it is using. In the computer world there is a saying GIGO
meaning “Garbage (мусор) in, garbage out”. The excellence
of the computer, like the excellence of logic, cannot make
up for (во зм ещ ать) th e d efic ie n c ies ([d i'fi$ (a )n si]
недостаток) on the input side. The fact that a car is being
driven with great skill does not mean that it is on the right
road or even going in the right direction. It may also have
missed an important turning. In practical life very few errors
in thinking are logical errors. Most thinking is free from visible
and logical inconsistencies. The errors are not so much errors
as inadequacy o f perception. And these inadequacies of
perception cannot usually be detected (обнаруживать) by
internal examination of thinking. That is why our assumption
that error-free thinking is valid has been very dangerous. Our
obsession (одержимость) with errors in logic has not only
failed to deal with the major causes of poor thinking but has
prevented (мешать) us from paying attention to these causes.
As noted earlier, this obsession is easily explained. We can see
Ш
and define logical errors very neatly (четко); they are tangible
and noticeable. We equate (уравнивать) thinking with
mathematics and treat errors in the same way. In real world,
however, we have to cope with (иметь дело) WHAT IS, rather
than with what we have constructed in our minds. We can now
look at some of the errors in thinking. It can be seen that very few
of them can be called logical errors unless one extends the meaning
of the word ‘logic’ to mean all effective thinking. Such an extention
would make the word useless. Partialism (необъективное рас­
смотрение фактов) is by far the major error in thinking and it
is a pure error of perception. It is insufficiency of perception. The
thinker is looking at only part of the situation and basing his
argument on that part. Time-scale is a special case of partialism in
which a person looks at a narrow slice of time - usually the
immediate future. Very often people see a situation only in terms
of how it affects them personally. This type of thinking is based
on egocentricity. The partial error of perception is firmly centered
on themselves. Arrogance (высокомерие) and conceit
(самомнение) constitute a very common and very important
error in thinking. It arises when there is an apparently logical
explanation for something and this is then taken to be the right
explanation. The error lies in the fact that this satisfaction with
the explanation prevents any search for other explanations. Initial
judgement is a second major source ([so:s] источник) of error.
The thinker makes an initial judgement as to whether he likes
or dislikes something. Thereafter he uses his thinking skill and
logical powers to back up his initial judgement. The thinking is
not used to explore the situation and then arrive at a judgement. It
is used to support a judgement that has already been made on the
ground (на основе) of prejudice (['pred^udisl предрассудок),
emotion, belief, social grouping and so on. All these types of
error are based on inadequacies of perception. None of them is
detectable as a logical error in the traditional sense. Yet in practice
these errors are far more important than the traditional logical
errors.
76
3. Summarize the text writing one or two sentences for each
paragraph.
XXII.
1. Study the strategies used in problem solving.
RETREATING (отступление). Sometimes depending on
the barrier, it is wise to retreat from the solving of a problem if
after analysis it appears to be insoluble. Our success-oriented
society may call it a failure, yet at times it may be wise to
retreat in order to build up new skills and self-confidence
(уверенность) and develop new attitudes (отношения).
ATTACKING. To attack is perhaps one of the most humanly
impulsive things to do when we are confronted (сталкиваться)
with a barrier or block to the attainment of a goal (цель).
However, it may not be the most desirable (желаемое). It is a
good strategy when we know we have what it takes to
accomplish our goal.
GOING AROUND THE BARRIER. Sometimes it is wise to
discover new pathways to achieving a desired goal.
SEEKING (обращение ) EXPERT OPINION. During your
lifetime there is a good chance that you will be confronted
with a problem whose solution requires (требовать) some
expert help. This is becoming more necessary because o f the
rapid development of specialized knowledge.
CHANGING THE GOAL. After analysing a problem, we
may see that the attainment of a particular goal is beyond our
capabilities as a result of factors within ourselves or because of
the nature of the barriers. We may then see that an alternate,
but attainable, goal may give us the same satisfaction.
CHANGING ONESELF. After the analysis of the problem
we may find that the barrier lies within ourselves, so that the
solution may involve changing ourselves in some ways.
CRYING, WORRYING (беспокойство) AND WHINING
(хныканье). It is the most frequently used. It results essentially
from our previous learning as children when these methods
77
paid off (оправдывать себя) in “instant problem solving” by
mama or papa. Although ineffective, this method helps us to
temporarily let off steam (nap) so that we can seek better
ways of solving our problems.
2. Say what kind of people prefer this or that strategy.
Here is a list of characteristics people may have: resolute
(решительный), reserved (сдержанный), self-assured (са­
моуверенный), intelligent (умный), timid (застенчивый),
shrewd (хитрый), independent (независимый), sensitive
(чувствительный ), calm ([kcr:m] спокойный).
3. Decide what the choice of strategy depends on
(groupwork).
To express your opinion use the following: as far as I am
concerned
as for me
in my opinion...
4. What strategy do you prefer and why?
XXIII.
1. Read the text and fill in the table below.
THE SELF AND THINKING
How one feels about himself affects not only the content
of his thinking but the way he thinks. A person who has a
positive self-concept tends to spend more time thinking about
his good qualities and his success experiences, whereas a person
with an essentially negative self-concept spends more time
thinking of his failures ([’feilja] неудача) in life and his
inadequacies [m'aedikwdsi] as a person.
There is also evidence that how one feels about himself is
related to how effectively he thinks. People who do not like
themselves tend to have difficulties in solving problems
effectively whereas people who feel good about themselves
tend to be much more effective in problem-solving.
Щ
People who feel inadequate tend to think more rigidly;
they tend to think in terms of black and white or good and
bad, rather than in shades of gray. People who feel good about
themselves also are able to tolerate complex or ambiguous
([am'bigjuas] неопределенный) situations. People who do
not feel good about themselves cannot tolerate ambiguity; they
have a need for an immediate answer to a problem. People
who feel comfortable about themselves can bring new and
unique (ju'ni:k] ideas into their thoughts about a problem
situation. They are much more creative and far more apt
(способный) to come up with original ideas.
Thus, man’s view of himself whether accurate [‘aekjurat] or
not, can serve either as facilitators (стимулятор) or inhibitors
([in'hibita ] тормоз) of effective thinking. It seems, as suggested
by Freud, that we must come to terms* with our inner selves
before we can hope to develop the thinking competencies
[’kompitansi] necessary for living well in a complex social and
physical world. Whenever our intellectual energies are freed from
our inner turmoil (беспорядок), they can be turned to the
problems of living life instead of being mani pulated by life.
People with
a positive
self-concept
People with
a negative
self-concept
Content of
thinking
Ways of
thinking
Ability to tolerate
ambiguity
Ability to bring
new ideas
General
conclusion
*come to terms = agree
79
2. Using the table give a 2 min. summary of the text.
XXIV.
Say whether you agree or disagree with the following
statements. Give your reasoning.
In your arguments use:
on the one hand ... on the other hand
that’s right
it seems doubtful that
not quite right
far from that ...
as for me
1) . There is no direct connection between intelligence and
effective thinking. A person may be creative whether
his intelligence is high or average.
2) . It is parents’ duty to tell their children what to do in
order to teach them thinking.
3) . The major cause o f inadequate thinking is logical
inconsistency.
4) . Feelings are always right.
5) . Thinking is used to back up our feelings.
LISTENING COMPREHENSION
XXV.
Listen to the two texts “The Behavioural Model of
Thinking” and “The Cognitive Model of Thinking”. Decide
which is which.
80
UNIT IV
R E A D I N G TECHNIQUES
L
The text below deals with recent research into sleep.
Read it paying attention to the italisized link-words.
Translate them into Russian.
Much research has been carried out in recent years into
sleep. We know a great deal about the m echanics o f sleep
and we are beginning to know about the biochemical changes
involved. However, we are still a long way from finding out
answers to such questions as how m uch sleep a person needs.
While the physiological basis o f sleep remains very m uch a
m atter for conjecture (догадка) we do nevertheless have
considerable evidence (данные) on how much sleep people
obtain. Despite this we need to know more about the kinds
o f effect that sleep deprivation (лиш ение ) causes. In spite
o f considerable effort devoted to investigations why we sleep,
there is still disagreement in this area. The fact that sleep
deprivation causes num erous harm ful (вредны й) effects
suggests th a t th e body requires sleep to restore (в о с­
станавливать) itself. However, more research is needed to
determ ine whether this i i So or whether sleep is the result
of adaptation to the environment. There is also the possibility
that these two alternatives may not be incom patible (не­
совместимый)
К
Study the table below. Classify the link-words from the text
according to this table.
6 Зак. 3300
■
Comparison
(сравнение)
Alternation
(альтернатива)
time-sequence
(временная после­
довательность)
opposition
(противопостав­
ление)
cause
(причина)
equivalence
(эквивалентность)
condition
(условие)
consequence
(следствие)
addition
(добавление)
than, as, rather than,..
or, nor, either ... or, otherwise,..
at the same time, after, meanwhile,..
still, yet, on the other hand, on the
contrary, in spite of, whereas,..
because, for, since,..
that is, i.e., in other words,..
if, unless, provided that, whether,..
hence, therefore, consequently,
thus,..
both ... and, not only ... but also,
furthermore, moreover, besides,..
TEXT STUDY
Ш
Before reading the text on sleep decide whether the following
statements are true or false:
a) sleep is a passive state;
b) people breathe slowly and regularly throughout the night;
c) everybody dreams during the night;
d) all sleepers remember their dreams.
Read the text to see whether yon were right. Choose the
title that best suits it.
a) Two types of sleep.
b) The mystery of sleep.
c) The investigation of sleep.
We may not give it a moment’s thought, but most of us
will probably spend the third of our lives asleep. Yet the nature
of sleep has puzzled mankind for thousands of years; it is
only in the last quarter (четверть) of a century that researchers
have made scientific attempts to investigate this world, trying
to find out why some people have enormous difficulty
falling asleep, while others find it impossible to stay awake.
Far from being a passive state, sleep is a remarkably active
one. While the sleeper is outwardly calm, the electrical activity
of the brain never stops. As the sleep becomes deeper
and deeper, the brain-waves become larger and more spread
out.
While the sleeper still thinks thoughts and moves occa­
sionally, the metabolic processes slow down and the heartbeat
drops until deep sleep is reached.
Every day every human being experiences two kinds of
sleep that alternate f'odta neitl rhythmically throughout the
entire sleep period. The discovery of the two kinds of sleep
occurred almost accidentally at the University of Chicago. In
1952 Dr. KJeitman became interested in the slow rolling eye
movements that accompany sleep onset (начало) and decided
to look for these eye movements throughout the night to
determine whether they were related to the depth or quality
of sleep. An entirely [in'taia li] new kind of eye movement was
noticed at certain times during night, the eyes began to dart
(быстро двигаться) about furiously ['fjudriesli] beneath the
closed lids (веки).
Dr. KJeitman coined the term “ REM” (for Rapid - Eye Movement sleep) to define the phenomenon he and his
colleagues observed.. The other kind eventually acquired the
name “ NREM” ['nonrem | sleep. The “ NREM” state is often
called ‘-quiet sleep” , because of the slow, regular breathing,
the general absence o f body m ovem ent, and the slow,
regular brain activity shown in the EEG . The body is not
paralyzed during N R E M sleep. The first sleep o f the night
is always NREM sleep, which must progress through its vari­
ous stages before the first REM period occurs. REM sleep,
which has been called “active sleep” is an entirely different
state o f existence. At th e onset o f REM sleep the sleeper’s
body is still immobile, but we can see small, convulsive twit­
ches (подергивания) o f his face and fingertips (кончики
пальцев).
Experts speculate th at REM sleep protects us from acting
out o u r dreams and hurting ourselves, and that it is not really
sleep at all, but a state in which the subject is awake, but
paralysed and hallucinating. The sleeper’s breathing becomes
irregular — very fast, th en slow — he may even appear to
stop breathing for several seconds. I f you gently pull back the
eyelids th e sleeper seem s to be actually looking at something.
Cerebral blood flow and brain temperature soar to new heights,
but large muscles o f th e body are com pletely paralysed: arms,
legs, an d trunk cannot move.
The N R E M -R E M cycle varies from 70 to 110 minutes,
but averages around 90 m in. In the early part o f the night
sleep is dom inated by the N R EM state, but as the night
progresses, the periods o f quiet sleep becom e shorter and the
REM episodes longer. The first REM period lasts 10 m in., but
by early morning they can last as long as an hour. So we are
believed to go into REM sleep and dream roughly every 90 m.
all night long. So m ost o f us sleep in two distinct ways: REM
sleep, when we dream , and “quiet” sleep when we simply
sleep.
Notes:
Kleitm an - an American psychologist.
to coin the term - придумывать новый термин
84
IV .
Look through the text and single out the main problems
raised.
V.
Read the text again and find facts to prove that
sleep is not a passive state;
sleep-w alking and sleep -talk in g do n o t o c c u r during
dreaming;
the REM and N REM periods are not equal;
the N R EM state can be called “quiet sleep” .
Words to be rem em bered:
accidentally adv. - случайно
acquire v. - приобретать
alternate v. - чередоваться,
average v. - равняться в среднем
awake adj. - бодрствующий
belief n. - вера
breathe v. - дышать
calm adj. - спокойный
depth n. - глубина
discovery n. - открытие
dream v. - видеть сон
distinct adj., - ясный, отчетливый
eventually adv. - в конечном счете, в итоге
entirely adv. - совершенно, совсем
hurt (hurt-hurt) v. - повредить
increase v. - увеличиваться
mankind n. - человечество
mystery n. - тайна
occasionally adv. - случайно, нерегулярно
outwardly adv. - снаружи, внешне
pull v. - тащить, тянуть
puzzle v. - озадачивать, ставить в тупик
quiet adj. - тихий
reach v. - достигать
remarkably adv. - удивительно, необыкновенно
85
rapidly adv. - быстро
speculate v, - размышлять, Щ |Щ |1ывать
various'adj. - различный, разнообразный
VI .
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
electrical activity of the brain; cerebral blood flow; as the
night progresses; brain waves; an entirely different state of
existence; to act out our dreams; a remarkable feature;
contrary to popular belief; to stay awake; sleep walking;
accidentally; rolling eye movement; an entirely new kind
o f eye movement; to breathe regularly; far from being a
passive state, sleep is ...
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
природа сна; предпринять научную попытку; и с­
следовать сон; выяснить; находить невозможным;
внешне спокойный; процесс обмена веществ; сердце­
биение снижается; чередоваться; сопровождать нача­
ло сна; придумать (создать) новый термин; дать оп­
ределение понятию; спокойный сон; специалисты
предполагают; варьироваться от ... до; равняться в
среднем.
ть
Classify the words according to the following criteria:
a)
b)
c)
d)
expressing physiological changes;
characterizing breathing;
referring to different parts of the body;
referring to different kinds of sleep.
VIII.
Fit the meaning and the word:
86
1). Think in a general way without
really knowing; guess
2). Not able to move or be moved
3). Something which is puzzling or
unknown
4). AH the processes of change which
go on in the body
Щ Not asleep
6). Body without its arms, legs and
head
Ш Cause pain to somebody
8). Clearly seen
9). On the outside, outer
10). Not moving, q u id
awake
mystery
metabolism
immobile
speculate
distinct
calm
trunk
outward
hurt
IX
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning.
a) rapid, hurt, reach, awake, increase, reach, contrary,
quiet, outward, puzzle, pull;
b) asleep, decrease, start, similar, noisy, inward, explain,
start, slow, cure, draw.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning.
a)
rapid, rem arkable, discover, distinct, occasional,
acquire, discover, various, average, mystery;
b) accidental, obtain, find out, different, unusual, secret,
obvious, reveal, quick, wonderful.
X.
1. Make the following words negative by adding prefixes
“dis” and “non” and translate them into Russian.
e.g. a) agree - disagree;
b) scientific - nonscientific
87
a) appear, like, arm, approve, connect, advantage, agree­
ment;
b) observable, productive, mysterious, resistance, sense,
existence, stop.
2. Fill in the table of derivatives.
adjective
noun
verb
distinguish
activity
regular
deprive
variety
discover
protection
speculative
awake
acquisition
XI.
Two of the words in each column are similar in meaning.
Check the word which doesn’t belong.
1. dro p
decrease
reach
2. protection 3. ordinary
defence
simple
investigation complex
5. remarkable
interesting
wonderful
6. rapid
slow
quick
7. occasional
accidental
temporal
4. occur
exist
happen
8. distinct
clear
complicated
XII.
Translate the 1st paragraph of the text below into Russian
DREAM REPAIRWORK
Even if we don’t yet know how to help people change
through their dreams, we can profit by studying how their
88
dreams are influenced by the circumstances (обстоятельства)
of their waking lives. One recent survey, for example, asked
people whether the amount of time they spent dreaming at
night was influenced by what they were feeling during the day.
Out of 271 women, 80 percent said there were times when
they were aware of dreaming more than their usual amount,
and 47 percent said there were times that they were dreaming
less. The women dreamed more, they said, during “times of
undue stress” and “blue and upset moods” and less “when
things were going especially well”. This may mean only that
when we are upset we are likely to sleep more lightly, and so
are more likely to awaken and become aware of our dreams.
However, it is also probable that in times of stress, dreams
seem to have more work to do in resolving our problems and
are thus more salient (характерный) and memorable. When
things are going well by day, we appear to have less need to
dream about such weighty matters.
If dreams do help us work through tensions and problems
from the previous day, then we should wake up feeling better
than when we went to sleep. This mood regulation function of
dreaming has been confirmed by Milton Kramer and Thomas
Roth, working at the university of Cincinnati. Kramer and
Roth studied the moods of some subjects before and after
they went to sleep. They found that in cases in which a person’s
mood improved after sleep it was usually related to specific
aspects of what they had dreamed.
G R A MMA R :
COMPLEX SUBJECT
XIII.
Pick out sentences with Complex Subject from the text
“The Mystery of Sleep” and translate them. The Notes
below will help you.
89
XIV.
Read the notes and translate the examples given.
If you change sentence (1) into the Passive Voice you get
sentence (2). Compare the sentences:
I expect M r. Parker to arrive on Friday. (Active)
M r. Parker is expected to arrive on Friday. (Passive)
a) The Complex Object in the first sentence becomes the
subject of the Passive sentence (2). The subject is expressed by
a noun (or pronoun) and the Infinitive and is called the
Complex Subject. The Complex Subject is used:
1) if the speaker doesn’t express his own opinion and the
action becomes impersonalized,
2) to express the degree of certainty.
b)
. The Complex Subject is used with the groups of verbs:
to believe, to know, to suppose; to expect, to see, to hear, to
observe, to watch and the verbs to say, to report, to announce
in the Passive Voice and with the verbs to seem to appear, to
happen in the Active Voice.
She is said to have obtained good results.
She is believed to have passed her exams.
She is known to be a good psychiatrist.
He appears to know the problem well.
The sleeper seems to be actually looking at something.
He happened to have been knocked down by a car.
c)
. Similar Construction can be found with to be (u n lik e ­
ly, to be sure, to be certain, where the speaker expresses the
degree of certainty about the action of the Infinitive.
e.g. She is certain to prove her hypothesis.
He is unlikely to have translated the article.
They are sure to take part in the conference.
The English simple sentence is rendered by a Russian Com­
plex sentence beginning with: известно, говорят, пола90
гают, считают, оказалось, что... (мало)вероятно, повидимому.
XV.
Compare the forms and tell the difference in meaning.
1) . The summit conference is known to be held in December.
2) . The summit conference is known to have been held in
Washington.
3) . The problem of nuclear disarmament was expected to be
discussed at the summit.
4) . The problem of nuclear disarmament was said to have
been discussed.
5) . The two powers are expected to sign the agreement.
6) . The two powers are expected to have signed the agreement.
7) . Five countries are reported to take part in the conference.
8) . Five countries are reported to have taken part in the con­
ference.
9) . He is likely to be reading for his report. He is certain to
have read quite a lot for his report.
XVI.
Choose the appropriate form while reading the passage.
Even though investigators do not yet completely understand
dreams, modem methods of study have answered a great many
questions about them. Here are some questions that are known
(to have been answered, to be answered).
Does everyone dream? Although many people do not recall
dreams in the morning, “recallers” and “nonrecallers” appear
(to dream, to have dreamt) equally often. Two hypotheses have
been proposed to account for the differences in recall of dreams.
One is that “nonrecallers” are believed (to be having, to have)
an inherent (врожденный) difficulty in recalling dreams. (Lewis
and others, 1966). The other hypothesis is that some people
awaken more readily in the midst of REM and thus report more
91
dreams. In other words, the reason we remember dreaming is
that we happened (to be waking up, to wake up) while we were
dreaming. Regardless of the fate of these hypotheses everyone is
certain (to have dreamt, to dream).
How long do dreams last? Occasionally dreams seem (to
have been, to be) instantaneous (мгновенный). However,
when subjects are asked (to be described, to describe) or
pantomime a dream, the time it takes for them to do so is
directly proportional to the length of time they were in REM
sleep before being awakened. (Dement and Wodperf, 1958).
Do people know when they are dreaming? Subjects are
likely (to train, to be trained) within one night to discriminate
between periods of dreaming and non-dreaming. One test is to
have the subject hold a switch in one hand while sleeping,
with instructions to close it while dreaming. (Salamy, 1970).
XVII.
Make up sentences matching the suggested parts. Use the
following verbs: to suppose, to seem, to expect, to know, to
be likely.
Psychologists
to sign the document;
The results obtained
to have proved the hypothesis;
The participants of
to have come to mutual
agreement;
the conference
to be good judges of man’s character;
The discussion
The student
to have been conducted;
The leaders of the two
to be held in the atmosphere
powers
of mutual understanding;
The experiment
to be answering a question.
XVIII.
1. Make suggestions concerning actions that one is expected
(supposed, certain) to perform in certain situations:
92
Ш the English lesson; if you promise something; if you apply
fora psychologist’s job; at midnight; if you find a lost purse.
e.g. In the reading room one is expected to keep quiet.
2. Characterize the following groups of people as having
common professional features:
psychologists; cosmonauts; sportsmen; writers; actors.
e.g . Teachers are known (likely, supposed, expected etc.)
to be good judges of man’s possibilities.
3. Make suggestions concerning your friends’ plans:
to-night; next summer; after their graduation.
XIX.
Make all the possible changes in the sentences to express
Active or Passive actions referring to the Present or Past
depending on the circumstances. Use the table.
It is known that the weather often changes in England.
The question of disarmament will be discussed at the
Summit.
Predicate
The weather
The questions
seem(s)
appear(s)
happen(s)
is (was)
said
known
of disarmament
expected
believed
supposed
(un)likely
are (were) certain
sure
Infinitive
active passive
simultaneousness
Priority
93
READING AND D IS CU SS ION
XX.
1. Read the text and identify the main topic of the passage:
a)
b)
c)
d)
the effects of lack of sleep;
sleep and body temperature;
how easily people can get used to working at night;
the effect of automation on working efficiency.
SLEEP
We all know that the normal human daily cycle of activity
is of some 7-8 hours’ sleep alternating with some 16-17 hours’
wakefulness and that, broadly speaking, the sleep normally
poincides (совпадать) with the hours of darkness. Our present
concern is with how easily and to what extent (до какой
степени) this cycle can be modified.
The question is no more academic one. The ease for ex­
ample, with which people can change from working in the
day to working at night is a question of growing importance
where automation calls insistently for round-the-clock working
of machines. It normally takes from five days to one week for
a person to adapt to a reversed routine of sleep and wakefulness,
sleeping during the day and working at night. Unfortunately,
it is often the case in industry that shifts are changed every
week; a person may work from 12 midnight to 8 a.m. one week,
8 a.m. to 4 p.m. the next, and 4 p.m. to 12 midnight the third
and so on. This means that no sooner has he got used to one
routine [ru'ti:n] than he has to change to another, so that
much of this time is spent neither working nor sleeping very
efficiently.
One answer would seem to be longer periods on each
shift a month, от even three months. Recent research by Bonjer
(1960) of the Netherlands [’nedalandzl, however, has shown
that people on such systems will revert to their normal habits
of sleep and wakefulness during the week-end and that this is
94
quite enough to destroy any adaptation to night work built up
during the week.
The only real solution appears to be to hand ШШ the
night shift to a corps of permanent night workers whose
nocturnal ([nok'ta:nl ]ночной) wakefulness may persist
through all week-ends and holidays. An interesting study of
the domestic life and health of night-shift workers was carried
out by Brown in 1957. She found a high incidence (число) of
disturbed sleep, digestive disorder and domestic disruption
among those on alternating day and night shifts, but no
abnormal occurrence of these symptoms among those on
permanent night work.
This latter system then appears to be the best longterm
policy, but meanwhile something may be done to relieve
(облегчить) the strains of alternate day and night work by
selecting those people who can adapt most quickly to the
changes o f routine. One way of knowing when a person has
adapted is by measuring his performance, but this can be
laborious. Fortunately, we again have a physiological measure
which correlates reasonably well with the behavioural one,
(in this case performance at various times of the day or night)
and which is easier to take. This is the level o f body
temperature, as taken by an ordinary clinical thermometer.
People engaged in normal daytime work will have a high
temperature during the hours of wakefulness and a low one at
night; when they change to night work the pattern will only
gradually reverse to match the new routine and the speed
with which it does so parallels, broadly speaking, the
adaptation of the body as a whole, particularly in terms of
performance and general alertness (настороженность).
Therefore by taking body temperature at intervals of two hours
throughout the period of wakefulness it can be seen how quickly
a person can adapt to a reversed routine, and this could be
used as a basis for selection. So far, however, such a form of
selection does not seem to have been applied in practice.
95
2. Make the right choice. Choose the best answer to each
question (groupwork):
a) Why is the question of modifying daily cycle “no more
academic one”?
- because sleep normally coincides with the hours of darkness;
- because some people can change their sleeping habits easily;
- because shift work in industry requires people to change
their sleeping habits.
b) Which is the best way of selecting people who can
adapt (most) quickly to the alternate day and night work?
- by measuring their performance;
- by working out special tests for them;
- by taking body temperature at intervals of two hours through
out the period of wakefulness.
c) Which is the best way of arranging the work during
night shifts in industry?
- by handing over the night shift to a corps of permanent
night workers;
- by having longer periods on each shift;
- by selecting those people who can adapt most quickly to the
changes of routine.
3. Rank the following statements to make up a summary.
(Timed activity).
a) . Therefore our present concern is with how easily and to
what extent normal human cycle of activity can be
modified.
b) . Automation calls insistently for round-the-clock working
of machines;
c) . One of the possible solutions appears to be to hand over
the night shift to a corps of permanent night workers.
d) . It’s possible to relieve the strains of alternate day and
night work by selecting those people who can adapt most
quickly to the changes of routine.
96
4. Read the text below, say what is new in it when compared
with text “Sleep”.
THE SECRETS OF SLEEP
The secrets of sleep were a mystery for centuries simply
because there was neither the means (способ) to explore
them, nor the need. Only when candles gave way to gaslight,
and gas to electricity, when man became able to convert night
into day, and double his output by working shifts (смена)
round the clock, did people seriously start wondering if sleep
could possibly be a waste of time. Our ability to switch night
into day is very recent, and it is questionable if we will ever
either want or be able to give up our habit of enjoying a good
night’s sleep. However, a remarkable research project in London
has already discovered (обнаружить) a few people who actually
enjoy insomnia (бессонница). Even chronic insomniacs often
get hours more sleep than they think. But, by placing electric
contacts beside the eyes and on the head, it is possible to
check their complaint by studying the tiny currents (ток) we
generate which reveal (показывать) the different brainwaves
of sleep and wakefulness. This has shown that for some people
seven or eight hours of sleep a night are quite unnecessary.
A lot of recent work has shown that too much sleep is bad
for you, so that if you are fortunate enough to be bom with
a body which needs only small amount of sleep, you may well
be healthier and happier than someone who sleeps longer.
Every attempt to unravel (разгадать) the secrets o f sleep,
and be precise about its function, raises many problems. The
sleeper himself cannot tell what is going on and, even when
he wakes, has only a very hazy (неясный) idea of how good
or bad a night he has had. The research is expensive and often
unpopular, as it inevitably (неизбежно) involves working at
night. Only in the last few years have experts come up with
theories about the function of sleep and the laws which may
govern it.
7 Зак. 3300
97
The real advance in sleep research came in 1937 with the
use o f the electroencephalogram.
5. Give a two-minute summary of it. Record your summary.
XXI.
Read the text and answer the question: what should and
should not be done if a child has sleep problems?
Sleep problems are not the same in children as they are in
adults. For example, infants and toddlers who are not sleeping
well do not complain—their parents do. Young children are
usually more unhappy about having to go to bed than about
any inability to fall asleep; in fact they are more likely to fight
sleep than they are to count sheep. The significance of other
sleep symptoms also depends on age. A four-year-old who
wets the bed every night probably has no disorder at all. A
seven-year-old who does the same has an annoying problem.
But a young adult who wets nightly has a genuinely disturbing
disorder. Sleepwalking or sleep terrors may have very different
psychological significance at different ages. And loud nightly
snoring (храпение) in children does not usually have the
same cause or require the same treatment as it does in adults.
Since opening our clinic, I have learned a great deal from the
hundreds of families whose children 1 have treated. Most of the
parents had received varied and often conflicting advice from
family, friends, and health professionals, and most had tried
several different approaches in an attempt to improve their
children’s sleep. Many of them had been told, at some point,
simply to let their child cry. Or they were advised to lock the
child in his or her room, to let the child sleep with them, to
have a parent sleep in the child’s room, to change the child’s
diet, to increase nighttime feedings, to warm the milk, to use a
pacifier, to rock their child to sleep, to turn on a light or radio,
to drive their child in the car at bedtime, to eliminate a nap, to
switch to a water bed, or to give their child sleep medicine.
98
Parents were often told—incorrectly—that there was little they
could do but wait for the child to outgrow the problem. Fre­
quently they were unjustly accused of “spoiling” their child, and
were made to feel inadequate as parents.
I have found that most of this advice not only doesn’t
help but will usually make matters worse because it is not
based on a full understanding of children’s sleep. Fortunately I
have been able to gain a much better appreciation of the
nature o f sleep and sleep disturbances in children, and I
have found that the causes of most of these disturbances can
be identified fairly readily and then corrected by simple,
straightforward techniques.
The most common problem, for example, sleeplessness in
young children, has proven to be the easiest to treat: even an
infant or toddler who has never slept through the night can
begin doing so within a few days with the right assistance from
parents. Other problems such as bedwetting, sleepwalking, or
sleep terrors need different approaches, but can almost always
be alleviated. Only occasional disorders such as narcolepsy require
the use of medication. And only very specific conditions such as
sleep apnea (остановка дыхания) ever call for surgery.
At our center I work closely with families. With their
help I examine the factors responsible for the child’s sleep
disruption and then, in most cases, work out treatment methods
that the parents can carry out by themselves. For the most
part it is still the parents who solve their child’s sleep problems,
and usually quite successfully.
XXII.
Read the text, consider the facts described and draw your
conclusion.
DREAMS
The fact that it is more difficult to awaken a person from
REM than from NREM sleep provides some initial support
99
for Freud’s idea that dreams protect sleep. An additional partial
test of the Freudian theory is to deprive (лишать) subjects of
REM sleep, thus depriving them of dreams. If subjects are
awakened every time there is an onset of REM, they have a
night’s sleep without dreams. Early experiments indicated that
after such deprivation there was more REM sleep the following
night, indicating that there is a kind of “quota” for REM; and
when there is less REM sleep one night, more will be required
the next. Indirectly, this would support the Freudian theory of
dreams as a protector of sleep. However, other findings of
sleep and dream studies contradict the interpretation o f REM
as a protector of sleep. In the first place, REM is prominent
(заметный) in infants, when meaningfull dreams are unlikely
to occur, and also in lower mammals (млекопитающие). The
study of the dreams of older children shows that their dreams
reflect the realistic activities of their waking lives and that
emotional disturbances occur in their dreams when there are
emotional disturbances in their waking lives (Foulkes, 1971).
The only conclusion to be drawn is that the psychophysiological studies of dreams have given little support to the
Freudian theory that the purpose of dreams is to protect sleep.
But from the work done so far, it appears that dreaming
serves several cognitive functions: it is measurably involved in
mood changes; it seems to provide the energy space for work­
ing out problems set aside through days filled with busy activity;
and, in general, it offers a kind of workshop for the repair of
self-esteem (чувство собственного достоинства) and
competence.
XXIII.
Give your arguments to support or reject one of the two
points of view.
a) . Dreams protect sleep;
b) . Dreams repair self-esteem and competence;
100
Use the following to express you r opinion :
I think (th a t)..; in my opinion
as I see i t ..; the point is
(that)
I quite agree
that’s just what I think
I am not
sure
I disagree...
XXIV.
1. What are your sleeping habits? Interwiev your fellow
student using this questionnaire (work in pairs).
• If you have trouble getting to sleep do you
a) count sheep
b) toss and turn
c) lie still and concentrate
• When you have dreams are they mostly dreams
a) about work
b) nightmares (кошмар)
c) sweet dreams
• After a night’s sleep do you find that the covers
(простыни)
a) are as tidy as when you went to bed
b) are all over the floor
c) are in a heap in the middle of the bed
• It
a)
b)
c)
you wake up in the middle of the night is it because
you remember something you ought to have done
you’re cold
you’re hungry
• If you hear a bump in the night do you
a) get up cautiously and investigate quietly
b) turn over and go back to sleep
c) wake up your husband (wife)
2. Characterize your partner according to his/her answers.
Use the following words: nervous, calm, sensitive, imagina­
tive, emotionally stable.
LISTENING
COMPREHENTION
XXV.
Listen to the text and answer the following questions:
1) . Has sleep deprivation any long-term effects?
2) . What are the effects of sleep deprivation?
U N IT Y
READING TECHNIQUES
£
1. The following text is an overview of A. Adler’s school of
thought. Read it selecting the appropriate link-words out of
the list given below (groupwork).
Alfred Adler turned away from psychoanalysis -1- he devel­
oped quite an original theory in which he stressed social factors
and minimized the innate physiological instincts in the
formation of personality.
-2- Adler man is a whole -3- a sum of his parts. And -4- he
cannot be understood through knowledge of his parts functions. Adler named his school of thought Individual
Psychology reflecting the view that each person is unique. To
the elements that determine the formation of personality he
added the factor of goals (цели). Adler’s approach follows the
doctrine o f teleology -5- the philosophical view that future
goals influence present behaviour. -6- his theory man’s behavior
is to some extent free of influence from the past. He has
numerous contacts with the complex world around him. -7-,
to a great extent (степень), he chooses how he will behave. -8Adler regards the person as self-actualizing. -9-, he sees man
as an active creative self, developing his potential. -10- the
person is continuously aware of his motives, he is capable
of directing his actions towards actualizing himself.
L while
since
as
2. like
according to
for example
Ш than
4. provided that
in spite of'
yet
father than
therefore
103
5. that
6. after
7. although
that is
as
thus
for instance according to
besides
9. in other words
while
nevertheless
8. w hether
moreover
however
10. so that
now that
on the other hand
II.
Guess the meaning of the underlined words through the
context by choosing between the alternatives given below.
ARE WE AFRAID TO BE DIFFERENT?
It is well known that when an individual joins a group he
tends to accept the group’s standards o f behaviour and thinking.
He is expected to behave in accordance with these norms - in
other words, the group expects him to conform (1). Many
illustrations could be given o f this from everyday life, but
what is o f particular interest to psychologists is the extent, to
which people’s judgements and opinions can be changed as a
result o f group pressure. Some remarkable conclusions were
reported by Asch and others (1952). They noticed that people
in a group will agree to statements that are contrary to the
evidence o f their senses or that contradict (2) their own
beliefs. It would be a mistake to think that only particularly
docile [’dousail] (3) people are chosen to take part in
experim ents of this type. Usually highly intelligent and
independent people are used and this, o f course, makes the
results even more disturbing.
In a typical experiment this is what may happen. The
experimenter asks for volunteers to join a group which is
investigating visual perception. The victims (4) are not therefore,
aware o f the real purpose of the experiment. Each volunteer-is
taken to a room where he finds a group o f about seven people
who are collaborating (5) with the experimenter. The group is
shown a standard card which contains a single line. They are then
104
asked to look at a second card. This has three lines on it. One is
obviously longer than the line on the first card, one is shorter
and one the same length. They have to say which line bn the
second card is the same length as the line on the standard card.
The other members of the group answer first but what the
volunteer does not know is that they have been told to pick one
of the wrong lines. The volunteer sees that the other members of
the group unanimously (6) choose a line which is obviously not
the same length as the one on the standard card. When it is his
turn to answer he is faced with the unanimous opinion of the
rest o f the group - all the others have chosen line A, but he
quite clearly sees line В as correct. What will he do? According to
Asch, more than half of the victims chosen will yield (7) to the
pressure of the group. However, Asch also found that if he allowed
one correct judgement in the group the probability of the victim
conforming was dramatically decreased.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
to behave like the group does; to behave differently;
differ from; are in agreement with;
independent; dependent;
the same as volunteers; not the same;
act as the experimenter has asked; act as they choose;
all the members o f the group choose the same line;
not all of them do so;
7) oppose pressure; not oppose it.
TEXT
STUDY
III.
The text you are going to read introduces the essentials of
Humanistic Approach in psychology. Which of the statements
below are characteristic of this approach ?
a). It does not explain man's behaviour. It Is concerned
with developing his resources.
105
b ) . In order to understand man as a whole humanistic
psychologists pay great attention to the study o f separate
functions and behaviours.
c) . Much of man's behaviour is dominated by unconscious
motives.
d) . Attitudes (установки), values and goals determine the
person's choice.
e) . Humanistic psychology emphasizes subjective experience
rather than objective reality.
Now read the text to see whether you were right.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Humanistic psychology, exemplified by such outstanding
writers as Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Gordon Allport,
Eric Fromm, and Rollo May, is concerned with the challenge
o f fully developing the person's resources [ri'so:siz]. It holds
that the person's need to develop his potentials [pa'ten$l],
along with his capacity to do so, is innate - that is, as much
a part of his nature as physiological needs.
Moreover, humanistic psychology focuses on the individual
as a whole person. To the humanistic psychologist the attempt
to understand a person by piecing him together from various
parts o f his behavior studied separately, does not yield the
same results as when he is studied as a whole. In other words,
where human behavior is concerned, the whole is distinctly
different from the sum of its parts. According to Bugental
(1964), now that it is becoming clear that the behaviourist's
search for additional knowledge about specific functions will
not lead to an understanding of man in the world, psycho»
logy is finally becoming the study of man - the whole man.
Thus humanistic psychology accepts man's wholeness as a
given.
The Freudian view of man as dominated by unconscious
instincts is rejected by humanistic psychology. The humanistic
106
psychologist does recognize the influence of early conditioning
and of unconscious drives. But like the modern existentialist,
he does not perceive man’s destiny (судьба) to be so fixed by
his unconscious that he has little choice; thus for him un­
conscious motivation is consistent with an important degree
of choice.
Man has learned to a n tic ip a te the consequences
(['konsikwans] результат) o f his most complex behaviour,
that is, he has awareness, which is reflected in a focus
upon his own being and in how he is related to other
persons and to social groups. Inevitably (неизбежно) this
focus upon his own being influences the choices he makes.
His choices are also influenced by his philosophy o f life,
a ttitu d es, and values. It is these th a t make up the
humanness that distinguishes man from other species. It is
because of these qualities that he feels a sense of relatedness
(relation, relate, relatedness) to others.
Yet another side of man's humanness is the creative force
that gives rise to his most complex and specifically human
behavior. He is capable of ordering his life into paths of his
own choice. The concept of man as involved in the process of
becoming has been summarized by Rogers:
... man does not simply have the characteristics of a machine,
he is not simply abeing in the grip (во власти) of uncon­
scious motives, he is a person in the process of creating him­
self, a person who embodies a dimension of subjective freedom.
Focusing on m an's experience of his self, humanistic
psychology has an inner-oriented, phenomenological qua­
lity, that is, it places its emphasis on subjective experience
rather than on objective reality. G reat importance is there­
fore attached to awareness o f self - of values, goals,
suffering (страдание), joy, and striving (стремление). And
in all this, humanistic psychology sees man as being in­
herently good.
107
Notes:
does recognize m “do,9r “does”, or “did” are used in affir­
mative sentences to emphasize the verb. In translation
the word “действительно”may be used,
upon his own being - на самом себе
give rise to smth. - порождать, давать начало
embodies a dimension - (зд.) является воплощением
IV.
Look through the text and single out the main points.
V.
Read the text again and say
what the main thesis of humanistic psychology is;
how humanistic psychologists view man;
whether man is entirely (всецело) dominated by
unconscious drives;
what distinguishes man from other species;
what process man is involved in;
i f humanistic psychologists place emphasis on subjective
experience or objective reality.
Words to be remembered:
anticipate v. - предвидеть
attitude n. - отношение, установка
attach v. - придавать; прикреплять
challenge n.v. - попытка, задача; броать вызов, вызывать интерес
consequence п. - последствие, результат
consistent adj. - совместимый; последовательный
drive п. - стимул, побуждение
exemplify v. > представлять, приводить пример
embody v, - воплощать
hold (held, held) v, - (зд.) утверждать
innate adj. -- врожденный
108
inherently adv. - m. своей основе
recognize v, - признавать
reject v. иИ ^ М Ь
search n„ поиск
sense n. - чувство
yield v. - давать, приносить, производить
VI.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
the challenge of fully developing the person’s resourses;
to accept man’s wholeness as a given; early conditioning;
to give rise to specifically human behaviour; man’s
experience of his self; awareness of one’s self.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
заниматься проблемой (ставить перед собой задачу);
развивать возможности человека; теория утверждает;
давать результаты; там, где дело касается поведения
человека; становится очевидным; поиск дополни­
тельных знаний; принимать цельность человека как
данное; взгляд Фрейда на человека; подобно совре­
менным экзистенциалистам; предвидеть последствия
(результаты); отличать человека от других видов;
испытывать чувство; давать начало (порождать);
по-собственному выбору; придавать значение чемулибо.
VII.
Write out the words according to the following criteria:
a) international words (at least 14), transcribe them.
b) nouns characteristic of the humanistic approach to
personality (at least 5).
c) synonyms for man (at least 3).
109
VIII.
Fit the meaning and the word:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
. A state that ensures the stable and pur­
poseful character o f subsequent activity
. A mental state showing the subject’s
unawared or scarcely awared needs
. The ability to foresee the results o f
actions, the appearance of objects
. A process o f inducing the activeness
o f an organism and determining
its orientation
. Give form to ideas, feelings
. Cause to appear
. A demand for an explanation;
a call to battle, debate
. State of always being the same
(in principles, behaviour)
. State of being conscious to
surrounding events
. A way of looking at life
anticipation
motivation
attitude
drive
attitude
give rise to
embody
awareness
challenge
consistency
IX.
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning;
a) whole, specific, conscious, subjective, social, accept,
attach.
b) reject, individual, part, detach, objective, unaware,
general.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning:
a) drive, becoming, hold, consequence, finally, concern,
exemplify, sense, persistent, fix, species.
b) class, result, interest, attach, motive, feeling, illustrate,
regard, at last, development, lasting.
110
X.
1. Form verbs from these nouns by means of conversion and
translate both:
C hallenge, influence, search , fu n c tio n , experien ce,
condition, value, need, attempt, focus, drive.
2. Form adjectives with the help of the suffix ‘-able’ and
translate them:
A ccept, recognize, perceive, d istinguish, challenge,
achieve, alter, identify, vary.
NOTE: apply - applicable
3. Form nouns with the help of the suffix ‘-ness’:
human, whole, aware, good, related, unique, conscious,
effective
4. Fill in the table of derivatives
noun
anticipation
attachment
embodiment
concern
1 example
2
recognition
rejection
separation
sense
consistency
verb
XL
Check the word which doesn’t belong:
adjective
—
_
—
—
—
—
1. antic i pate
separate
private
isolate
2. attitude
value
goal
approach
5. be engaged
be consistent
be concerned
be interested
3. drive
motive
sense
need
6. reaction
response
conditioning
stimulus
4. human
being
person
individual
7. discriminate
distinguish
disapprove
discuss
XII.
Translate the passages from the text marked by vertical lines.
GRAMMAR:
THE GERUND
XIII.
Pick out sentences with the gerund from the text and translate
them. Give as many variants as you can. The notes below will
help you.
HOW TO BECOME HEALTHIER
One of the ways in which mentally healthy people grow is
in being successful while developing social, intellectual, and
vocational (профессиональный) competences. Involved are
such factors as hard work, learning how to concentrate, and
the willingness to make long-term efforts at the expense (зд.
вместо) of immediate reward. Success experiences at school,
at work, and interacting with others are thus vital ([vaitl]
существенный).
Another method involves contact with new ideas, new
philosophies* and new personalities. This can occur through
reading and through reacting to drama and music. It can also
happen through travelling and meeting new people.
In addition, it seems evident that people need expressing
their emotions fully. But many people are afraid of experiencing
112
basic human fee lings. Involvement in any relationship or acti­
vity that allows a person to be himself is also helpful. Hobbies,
deep relations with friends, or even walks in the park alone
can facilitate (облегчить) the release (выражение) of basic
emotions.
There is no doubt that one cannot become healthier without
achieving independence. Accepting more responsibility,
whether it be in the home, at work, or in school, seems to
facilitate the feeling of independence. Freely expressing views,
when it is appropriate, strengthens a personality. Questioning
(сомнение) some of the values of parents or society also
helps. Becoming independent is a process that involves forming
one’s own set of values. Ideally each independent person is
unique; there is no one else quite like him.
XIV.
Read the notes and translate the examples given.
a)
. The gerund has the same grammatical categories as finite
verbs (voice, aspect, time correlation). They are formed in a
similar way, but the first element is in the “mg” -form.
e.g. 1). He likes neither interrupting (перебивать) people
nor
being interrupted.
2) . She denies having spoken to him about it.
3) .He was proud of having been received by this famous
scientist.
. The gerund can be any part of the sentence except the
b)
predicate.
e.g. 1).
2)
3)
4)
8 Зак. 3300
Smoking is a bad habit.
. Besides reading she likes to listen to music.
. I don’t remember hearing the legend before.
. Instead of preparing his homework he went to the
cinema.
113
5) . Ring me up before leaving for Leningrad.
6) . He had a feeling of being laughed at.
The gerund is used without prepositions only as a subject or as
an object after such verbs as: begin, continue, finish, prefer,
suggest, consider, admit, deny, dislike, imagine, involve,
mention, cease, propose, mind, excuse, etc.
e.g. Do you mind (возражать) opening the window?
The gerund takes prepositions after
verbs such as: agree (to), accuse (of), approve (of),
be interested (in), be afraid (of), depend (on),
insist (on), object (to), prevent (from),
succeed (in), think (of), etc.
e.g. He insisted on accepting his plan.
nouns (always followed by the preposition “o f ’) such as:
idea, plan, chance, hope, opportunity, way, tradition, etc.
e.g. There was no chance of getting this book.
NOTE: Some verbs may take both the gerund and the infinitive
as an object (usually with a difference in meaning).
“To stop” followed by the gerund means to stop what
one is doing or does. The infinitive after “to stop”
means making a break or pause in order to do smth.
e.g . I really must stop reading in bed.
Passing by a cafe I stopped to have a cup of coffee.
c). Compare the following sentences:
c f.
1 don’t mind saying I was wrong.
I don’t mind your saying I was wrong.
In the first example “ I” is the agent of both “mind” and
“saying”, in the second example the agents are different “ I”
and “you” respectively (соответственно).
d). Combine the following sentences to practise the abovementioned construction:
e.g. I’m going to smoke. Do you mind it?
- Do you mind my smoking?
1)
2)
3)
4)
. She is going to tell the whole truth. Are you afraid o f it?
. 1 think I’ll be late for the meeting. Will you excuse it?
. We are going to speak to him. What do you think of it?
. He wants to come to our party. Will you object ([db'dfekt]
возражать) to itf
5) . The students don’t want to hold a meeting today. Do you
insist on it?
XV.
Compare the forms and tell the difference in meaning:
1)
2)
. Friends find pleasure in associating with one another.
. He realized he ought to have asked their opinion on the
problem instead of having expressed his own first.
3) . He hates being interrupted.
4) . Chimpanzees can be taught simple tricks by being shown
what to do.
5) . The success o f the experiment depended on its having
been well prepared.
XVI.
Choose the appropriate form while reading the passage.
. SOCIAL DEMANDS
One of the objective factors that may lead to mental illness
for some individuals relates to the demands of society. A result
o f (live, living) in a complex society is that we are pressured
into (behaving, behaved) in certain ways that we may not
(feel, feeling) are reasonable. That is we cannot always do
what we (want, wanting) to because of the necessity of
(conformed, conforming) to certain expectations.
For the persons who feel insecure (небезопасно) and
inadequate and have little control over their behavior, this
presents another dilemma. These people may tend (feeling, to
feel) that many of the demands of society are unreasonable
and rebel (to refuse, by refusing) to conform. This may lead
to criticism and rejection by others, which only makes them
(feel, feeling) more alone and insecure. You can see how easy
it becomes (setting, to set) (self-defeating, self-defeated)
(defeat - уничтожать) behavior in motion.
Society, of course, includes our friends, family and groups
which we belong to or identify with. Similar problems keep
(emerging, emerged) within these social interactions as with
society as a whole.
People who are more prone (склонный) to mental
problems often find it difficult (to relate, relating) effectively
to others and to the (changing, changed) requirements and
interpretations o f social situations. Such failures, whether
real or (imagining, imagined) often lead to (losing, lost)
self-esteem and compensatory reactions to these feelings of
inadequacy,
XVII.
Combine the following sentences according to model:
a) . She never tells lies. She hates it.
- She hates telling lies.
b) . John tells her lies. She hates it.
- She hates being told lies.
1)
2)
3)
4)
. They treat him like a child. I don’t approve of it.
. They treat him like a child. He doesn’t like it.
. Somebody was watching him. He was aware of it.
. He wanted to be introduced to this scientist. He was constantly
thinking of it.
5) . He tried to express his opinion on the problem. But he was
prevented (помешать) from it.
116
6). She was so deeply impressed by what she saw, she could’t
hide (скрыть) it.
XVIII.
1. Answer the questions using the gerund.
a)
. What do you usually do:
- after accomplishing some difficult task?
- instead of doing some unpleasant thing?
- before making an experiment?
b)
. In what ways can one succeed in something?
Begin your advice with:
- One can succeed in ... by/through ....
- One can’t succeed in... w ithout....
c) . Have you ever had (missed, got) a chance (hope, opportu­
nity) o f doing smth?
d)
. What do you prefer (enjoy, object to, succeed in):
What are you interested in (fond of, afraid ofy
- teaching somebody or being taught?
- telling lies to somebody or being told lies?
- giving presents to somebody or being given them?
- deceiving (обманывать) somebody or being deceived?
- listening to somebody or being listened to?
- beating somebody or being beaten?
2. Rewrite the passage within the frame given below. Use as
many gerunds as you can:
One of the modes of life described by C.Jung and C.Rogers
is presenting an outer mask to the world.
The person wears a mask because he tries to hide his truer
inner self. But the person’s attempt to conceal (скрыть) his
inner feelings may give rise to anxiety. The person is afraid of
being rejected. The other person may not only reject his positive
feelings but also exploit him where he is submissive (покорный)
©r even attack him where he is vulnerable (уязвимый). Usually
the person fails to establish relations with other people if his
self-concept is poor. He feels he might not “be a success”.
But in fact it is the mask that makes understanding each
other really a problem. The only way to establish friendly relati­
ons with the other person is to reveal (раскрыть) one’s true
self
(According to... By... he tries... But the attempt of... Besides
... The person cannot succeed in ... But in fact ... prevents
people from ... It is only through ...)
XIX.
Fill in the table of gerundial forms. (Use the verb ‘to do’).
active
passive
to express simultaneousness
to express priority
READING
AND
DISCUSSION
XX.
Read the text and decide who it might be of interest to:
- philosophers or psychologists?
- psychiatrists or psychotherapists?
- the theoretically-minded or the practically-minded?
THE ‘THIRD FORCE’ IN PSYCHOLOGY
The “third force” in clinical theory and practice is
humanistic psychology and “the human potential movement”.
Humanistic views became popular during the 60s, reflecting
in part the protest against establishment practices in all fields
of endeavor (зд. исследование). But it was in the 70s that this
movement truly flourished, attracting media (средства мас­
совой коммуникации ) attention and support from among
118
those in the mental health professions who felt dissatisfied
with behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
Humanistic therapists begin on a highly optimistic note,
asserting (утверждать) that each person, irrespective
(независимо) o f native ability or life circtumstances, is
capable o f achieving complete self-awareness and self­
acceptance. Each one of us can be liberated, enabled to fulfill
our creative potential and experience life more fully if we can
be helped to overcome internal barriers.
Carl Rogers is often cited as the progenitor([prou'dfenita]
основатель) of humanistic views. He said that only negative
evaluations made by significant others in the life o f the indi­
vidual limit the individual’s potential for growth. Rogers re­
garded optimal mental health as a state of total congruity
([kan'gmiti] congruent, congruity) between the self as it cur­
rently is, and the self as one would like to be, or “ideal self’.
Such congruity would create unconditional feelings of selfworth which would translate into positive regard (уважение)
for others and a full range o f development of one’s capacities.
Rogers thought of therapy as an opportunity to lessen any
incongruity between the self and the ideal self, which requires
that therapist and client have a true person-to-person relationship, not one that amounts to aphysician administering acure
(лечение) (the analytic model), or ascientist manipulating a
laboratory object (the behaviorist model). Rogerian therapists
advocate a therapeutic [0erd'pju:tik] atmosphere of warmth,
permissiveness (снисхождение) and egalitarianism. In such a
setting, a person could receive more favourable evaluations ’’stroking” (поглаживание ) some have called it - that would
free him to take chances in life, to self-actualize.
(to be continued in XXIII):.
XXI.
1. Study the diagram that summarizes the text:
PROBLEM----
OBJECT
OF STUDY
----HYPOTHESES------
PRELIMINARY
RESULTS
2. Now read the text and do all the assignments while reading
the text paragraph by paragraph.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO STUDENT
PERSONALITY AND ACADEMIC ATTAINMENT
The problem.
The starting point o f this project was the realization that
many students in universities either fail their course or do
not achieve their full potential. In some universities failure
rates are alarming for both students and staff. Apart from
those students who fail, lack o f achievement is often evidenced
by those who change from one course to another or show
signs o f boredom (тоска). There could be many reasons for
these phenomena but it occured to us that two questions were
particularly relevant. Are students accepted for courses which
are most suitable (подходящий) for them? How can they
be h elp ed to overcom e th e ir academ ic problem s? By
narrowing these questions down and interpreting them from
a psychological point o f view, a research design emerged
(возникать). It was decided to investigate the characteristics
o f students entering the universities and relate these to their
academic success.
Complete the table below to show the structure of the
information.
General
statement
Specific
evidence
Possible
explanation
Research
topic
120
The object o f study
Find answers to the following questions:
a) . Why was it necessary to define personality?
b) . What are the two main dimensions underlying human
behavior?
c) . What personality types are mentioned?
It was decided that the most im portant variables relevant
to academ ic success would be m otivation, study habits,
personality and the stu d en ts’ reactions to th e physical
environment in the institution. We were particularly interested
in the students’ personality. As a way o f distinguishing the
range (ряд) o f factors that this term covers, we decided to
adopt a working definition of personality. Among numerous
definitions we found the following by Allport (1963) which
referred to the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychological systems that determine his characteristic
behavior and thought. If this definition is accepted, it appears
inevitable that personality will be an im portant factor in
academ ic success. The m easurem ent o f perso n ality is,
however, far from simple.
Eysenck hypothesized two important yet distinct dimensions
underlying hum an behavior: extroversion and neuroticism. On
one dimension we can describe people as neurotic or stable.
On the other dimension, people range from extroverts to
introverts. It is useful to identify individuals with above and
below average scores (оценка) on each characteristic and
describe four personality ‘types’ - stable extroverts, stable
introverts, unstable extroverts and unstable introverts.
The hypotheses
Early research in the area indicated that in general the
neurotic introverts seem to make the most successful students.
More recent research, however, has altered the picture. Intro­
version is constantly related to good degree results but the
m
effect of neuroticism is far from clear. Thus in a previous study
in this university it was found that students: of psychology
tended to have a high degree of neuroticism, while students of
engineering appeared in general to be stable. We therefore
formulated two main hypotheses:
Fill in the blanks with one of the words given in brackets:
a) . ... succeed more frequently than ... in all areas of study
(extroverts, introverts).
b) . Success in arts subjects is associated with ... while success
in science subjects is dependent on ... . (neuroticism,
stability).
Preliminary results
On the whole (в целом) our hypotheses were substantiated
(подтвердиться). Introversion did seem to be closely related
to academic success. This was particularly noticeable with
mathematicians and with pure scientists generally. It was least
true of students of engineering and languages, where there
was practically no difference between the percentage of
successful extroverts and introverts. Neuroticism, too, seemed
to be a significant factor and was related to the students’ own
area o f study. For example, applied scientists (ученыеприкладники) contrast with pure scientists (ученые-тео­
ретики) in that the former (первые) have a much higher
degree of neuroticism. Successful language students, too, have
particularly high scores on the neuroticism scale. The
outstanding characteristic of social scientists, on the other
hand, is their emotional stability.
We hope that our results, if confirmed by further research,
could be taken into consideration when advising students on
their choice of field of study. We would recommend that all
students should be given personality tests and that they should
be advised to study subjects in which they are most likely to
be successful.
122
Complete the following diagrams:
3. Now refer back to the original diagram and sum up the
text. Make use of the following phrases:
the main concern o f i t was noticed t h a t i t was decided
t h a t ... were specified; on the basis o f o n the whole ..;
as a result o f..; it was recommended th a t... should ...
XXII.
1. Read the text and identify the topic (timed activity).
Everyone has a need to understand other people. Much of
everyone’s lifetime is spent interacting with other individuals,
and it is through these human relationships that people attempt
to satisfy many of their own personal needs. For this reason,
an individual’s ability to skillfully develop and promote (спо­
собствовать) human relationships becomes very important.
Related intimately to people’s success in developing these
meaningful relationships is their ability to understand or
perceive others accurately. The individual’s ability to understand
and predict (предсказывать) the behaviours of others is a
crucial ([kru:$l] решающий) factor in responding to other
123
people in a way that is both appropriate to the situation and
personally satisfying. It is because of this need to understand
others that human beings have a tendency to form impres­
sion o f those with whom they come in contact. This tendency
is an attem pt to give meaning to others so that inferences
(['infdfansl вывод) concerning their personal characteristics
can be made.
The process by which we form an impression or develop
an understanding of another individual is that of interpersonal
perception. Usually, when we form impressions of others, we
respond to a great number of observable stimuli. We may take
note o f such diverse ([dai'va:s] разнообразный) aspects of
physical appearance as skin colour, hair style, facial features
and body build. The other person’s actions, mannerism, dress,
vocal mode, and tone o f voice may also be observed. On
the basis of these cues (намеки), we usually form a rather
complete idea, or percept, as to what the other person is
like. But the percept that is formed is by no means (никоим
образом ) lim ited by the available (доступны й) obser­
vable inform ation; indeed, the percept will typically be
completed to include inferences concerning the other person’s
feelings, motives and other facets (характерная черта) of
personality.
The basis for the inferences one person makes about
another is rooted (коренится) in the person making inferences.
Obviously, such inferences'may or may not be correct, and
the degree of their accuracy will more or less determine the
correctness of the percept that results from them. The individual
who is generally capable o f accurate interpersonal perceptions
- who can perceive accurately the feelings and the meanings
of those feelings o f another person is referred to here as the
“ Empathic Perceivef” . It is this person who is in the best
position to enjoy meaningful interpersonal relationships.
2. Give a five-sentence summary. Record yourself.
124
X X III.
The following text is the criticism of Humanistic views given
in ex. XX. Exchange opinions of the author's arguments.
(Groupwork). Use the following phrases for the discussion:
There is no denying that ... What is missing in this inter­
pretation is ... I’m afraid it’s too much to say... As far as
I am concerned ... I have reason to believe that ...
Agree with the true statem ents, reject the false ones.
Humanistic psychologists’ ambitions (стремления) are far
too noble, but far too frequently they fail to be realized. The
failure to reckon-(учитывать) with the social external barriers
to self-fulfilment - economic strain (напряженность), violence
and a weakening of our society, as well as vanishing (ис­
чезающие) opportunities to become productive and creative
- condemns (сводит) humanistic treatments to therapy suc­
cesses, and then only among those who start out with such
advantages like money, education and personal contacts.
The humanistic psychologists suggest, for instance, that
we can achieve self-confidence (уверенность в себе), complete
happiness, love, even financial success, as a result o f an in­
tensive, usually marathon group weekend. Some o f these ap­
proaches resemble nothing so much as the new religious
movements, cults or any other forms of fetishism (like sportspreoccupation, for instance) which are diversions (зд. послед­
ствия) from the material and spiritual decline (упадок) o f
our social system.
One is reminded, in assessing the humanistic treatments,
o f B.F.Skinners’s approach to the education of children, in
which a central goal is to minimize the number of times one
must say “no” to a child’s wishes. The problem as it turns out
later, is that the world-at-large says “no” all the time. In such
a case no amount of good feeling can survive very long. Studies
have shown, for instance, that long-term joblessness can
undermine (подорвать) the self-esteem and emotional well125
being o f the, strongest among us. Humanistic treatments, like
their behavionist and psychodynamic counterparts (аналоги),
will continue to fail in their mission to liberate human potential
until they take full, scientific 'cognizance (понимание) of
what it is about life in our country that gives so many of us
em otional troubles.
( Political Affairs )
LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
XXIV.
SENSITIVITY TRAINING AND GROUP
PSYCHOTHERAPY COMPARED
1). Listen to the text and complete the diagram to show the
difference between Sensitivity Training (T- group) and
Group Psychotherapy.
Kind of Role of a
Study of
Goals of
personality motivation, treatment trainer or
therapist
changes unconscious
factors
T-group
Group
therapy
2). Why do you think the author says that the features the
groups have in common appear to be greater than those that
differentiate them?
126
UNIT VI
READING
TECHNIQUES
I.
1. Match the figures to the text. Use the context, visual
clues and word derivation (groupwork).
1. Cognitive psychologists argue that we are not merely passi­
ve receptors of stimuli; the mind actively processes the infor­
mation it receives and transforms it into new
forms and categories. We continually extract
patterns from objects we see, trying to match
them with something meaningful. Stare at the
dot in the centre between the cubes to establish
for yourself the fluctuating nature of perception.
2. Some of the problems of seeing threedimensional forms on a two-dimensional sur­
face are illustrated by the “impossible figure”.
This drawing appears as a U at the bottom,
but has three prongs at the top. Incompatible
information is given to the eyes and the brain
cannot decide how to interpret it.
3. Organizing stimuli into “figure” and
“ground” is basic to stimulus patterning, even
though the figure and ground may reverse from
one moment to the next. The reversible goblet is
a demonstration of a figure-ground reversal. Note
that either the light portion (the goblet) or
the dark portion (two profiles) can be perceived
as a figure against a background and seems more
solid and well-defined.
Fig. В
/
7
4
/
/
Fig. C
127
4. The figure in the centre is ambiguous,
and the way we see it depends on whether
we look from left to right or from top to
bottom. It illustrates the role of context in
perception. The centre of the figure can
be seen either as the letter В or the number
13, depending on the context in which it
appears.
5. As you study the figure, you will see
that your perception of it changes. You will
find th at the tinted surface sometimes
appears as the front o f the figure and
sometimes as the back. Once you have
observed the cube change perspective, it will
jum p back and forth between the two
perspectives without any effort on your part.
In fact you will probably find it impossible
to maintain a steady fixation on only one
aspect of the transparent cube. The illusion
was devised in 1832 by the Swiss naturalist
LA. Necker.
Fig- E
m
In the following text several words have been taken out.
Read the text carefully and supply the missing words from
the list below.
CONTEXT AND EXPERIENCE
Textbooks on ... are filled with examples demonstrating
that the same ... can give rise to different percepts, depending
on the ... in which it is observed and the past ... of the
observer. Figure A illustrates the role o f ... in perception. The
centre of the figure can be seen
as the letter В ... the
number 13, depending on the ... in which it appears. Similarly
128
past experience influences perceptual hypotheses we form
when we see something for the ... time. Remember the
ambiguous drawing o f the young woman/old woman. On
first viewing, about 65 ... of the people report seeing a pretty
young woman, and 35 ... see an unattractive ... woman. But
if we first show a group of subjects a set of unambiguous
pictures all depicting ... women and then show them the ...
picture, they almost always see it as a young woman. The ...
can be demonstrated by first showing subjects a set o f ... all
showing... women.
(stimulus, first, either, context, reverse, or, ambiguous,
old, perception, pictures, young, percent, experience).
T EX T STU D Y
III.
The text you are going to read describes a group of
experiments on perception. Before reading decide whether
the following statements are true or false.
a) . Experiments help to make the matter plain (to clear
out the matter).
b) . Colour photography is a biological process.
c) . Satiated people see less clearly than hungry or thirsty
people.
d) . A person is more sensitive to changes in light than a
camera.
e) . Human perception is mysterious and unpredictable.
Now read the text to find out whether you were right.
Choose the title that best suits it:
a) . Strange experiments.
b) . Vision versus colour photography.
c) . Perception.
9 Зак. 3300
129
TEXT
When thinking about biological processes it is often help­
ful to consider some apparently similar yet better understood
mw-biological processes. In the case of visual perception an
obvious choice would be colour photography. Since in many
respects eyes resemble cameras, and percepts photographs, is
it not reasonable to assume that perception is a sort of photo­
graphic process by which samples of the external world become
spontaneously and accurately reproduced somewhere inside
our heads? Unfortunately, the answer must be no. The best
that can be said of the photographic analogy is that it points
up v/hat perception is not. Beyond this it is superficial
(несерьезный, поверхностный) and misleading. Four simple
experiments should make the matter plain (ясный).
In the first a person is asked to match a pair of black and
white discs, which are rotating (вращаться) at such a speed
as to make them appear uniformly grey. One disc is standing
in shadow, the other in bright illumination. By adjusting the
ratio of black to white in one of the discs the subject tries to
make it look the same as the other. The results show him to be
remarkably accurate, for it seems he has made the proportion
of black to white in the brightly illuminated disc almost identical
with that in the disc which stood in shadow. But there is
nothing photographic about his perception, for when the
matched discs, still spinning, are photographed, the resulting
print shows them to be quite dissimilar in appearance. The
disc in shadow is obviously very much darker than the other
one.
What has happened? Both the camera and the person
were accurate, but their criteria differed. One might say that
the camera recorded things as they look, and the person things
as they are. But the situation is manifestly (явно, очевидно)
more complex than this, for the person also recorded things
as they look. He did better than the camera because he
130
made НИИ look as they really are. He was not misled by
the differences in illumination. He showed perceptual cons­
tancy. If it were not for an extremely rapid, wholly un­
conscious piece of computation, he would not have received
a more accurate record of the external world than the
camera.
In the second experiment a person is asked to match with
a colour card the colours of two pictures in dim illumination.
One is of a leaf, the other of a donkey. Both are coloured an
equal shade of green. In making his match he chooses a much
stronger green for the leaf than for the donkey, the leaf
evidently looks greener than the donkey .The percipient makes
perceptual world compatible with his own experience. It hardly
needs saying that cameras lack this versatility.
In the third experiment hungry, thirsty and satiated
['seijieitid] people are asked to equalize the brightness of
pictures depicting food, water and other objects unrelated to
hunger or thirst. When the intensities at which they set the
pictures are measured it is found that hungry people see pic­
tures relating to food as brighter than the rest (i.e. to equalize
the pictures they make the food ones less intense), and thirsty
people do likewise with ‘drink’ pictures. For the satiated group
no differences are obtained between the different objects. In
other words, perception serves to satisfy needs, not to enrich
subjective experience. Unlike a photograph the percept is
determined by more than just the stimulus.
(to be continued in XII).
Notes:
in the case of - что касается, в отношении
in many respects - во многих отношениях, во многом
an obvious choice would be (modal verb expr. “belief”)
- вероятно, по-видимому
beyond this -в остальном
do likewise - поступают подобным же образом
131
IV.
Read the text again. Single out the main problems raised
choosing the correct ending for each point.
• In
a)
b)
c)
d)
the first paragraph, the author suggests that
colour photography is a biological process.
vision is rather like colour photography.
vision is a sort of photographic process.
vision and colour photography are very different.
• In the first experiment, it is proved that a person
a ) makes mistakes o f perception and is less accurate than a
camera.
b) can see more clearly than a camera.
c) is more sensitive to changes in light than a camera.
d) sees colours as they are in spite o f changes in the light.
• The second experiment shows that
a) people see colours according to their ideas o f how things
should look.
b) colours look different in a dim light.
c) cameras work less efficiently in a dim light.
d) colours are less intense in larger objects.
• The third experiment proves that
a) we see things differently according to our interest in
them.
b) pictures of food and drink are especially interesting to
everybody.
c) cameras are not good at equalizing brightness.
d) satiated people see less clearly than hungry or thirsty
people.
•.The-group o f experiments, taken together, prove the human
perception is
a) unreliable.
b) mysterious and unpredictable.
132
c) less accurate than a camera.
d) related to our knowledge, experience and needs.
V.
Look through the text paragraph by paragraph and
(§1) explain why the writer compares visual perception to
colour photography
say how the writer calls the photographic analogy
(§2) see i f you can tell how many discs were rotating,
what the speed of rotation was and
what colour each o f them was
(§3) fin d fa cts to prove that the man did better than the camera
explain what helped him receive a more accurate
record of the external world than could the camera.
(§4) say whether the leaf was greener than the donkey and
why
(§5) fin d out whether hungry and thirsty people managed to
equalize the brightness o f pictures relating to food
and drink.
Words to be rem em bered:
adjust v.- регулировать, устанавливать
appearance n.- внешний вид
constancy n.~ постоянство, неизменность
compatible adj.~ совместимый, сочетаемый
external adj.- внешний
identical adj.- сходный, идентичный
intensity n.- насыщенность
lack v.- не иметь, испытывать недостаток
misleading adj.- вводящий в заблуждение, неправильный
match V , - приводить в соответствие, подбирать
obvious adj.- очевидный, вполне понятный
perceive v.- воспринимать, осознавать
percept n.-объект/результат перцепции
perceptual adj.- перцептивный
perception п.- восприятие
percipient п.~ воспринимающий, способный воспринимать
133
resemble v.- иметь сходство, напоминать внешне
ratio и.- соотношение, пропорция
reasonable adj. - разумный, обоснованный
record v., п.- снимать, фиксировать, делать запись
similar adj.- похожий, подобный
sample п.- образец, образчик
satiated adj.- удовлетворенный, сытый
uniformly adv.- однородно
visual adj.- зрительный
versatility п,- универсальность, гибкость
VI.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
It is obvious that; it’s often helpful to consider; to appear
uniformly grey, the ratio o f black to white, to adjust the ratio;
one might say that, he did better than the camera, the situation
is manifestly more complex than this, wholly unconscious
piece of computation, to make a perceptual world compatible
with one’s own experience; it hardly needs saying that; unlike
a photograph; to see pictures relating to food as brighter than
the rest; objects unrelated to hunger or thirst.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
рассмотреть некоторые небиологические процессы; в
случае зрительного восприятия; во многих отношениях;
разум но (логично) предполож ить, что; в лучш ем
случае можно сказать, что аналогия; в его восприятии
н ет ни чего , н ап о м и н аю щ его ф о то гр аф и ю ; бы ть
внеш не соверш енно разны м и; их критерии были
разными (отличались друг от друга); можно сказать,
что; постоянство восприятия; едва ли нужно говорить,
что; удовлетворить потребности; расширить (обогатить)
личный опыт; в отличие от фотографий.
VII.
The text contains some nouns of Greek and Latin origin. Pick
them out and learn their plural form. What other similar words
134
do you remember? Classify them according to your own criteria
( min 9-10 words).
Шк
Fit the meaning and the word.
1) . Put in order or agreement
2) . Pull, twist out o f the usual shape
3) . Preserve for use by writing or in
other ways (by means of
photographs, gramophone discs, etc.)
4) . Be similar to
5) . The quality o f having many different
functions or uses
6) . Part o f a whole taken to show what
the rest is like
7) . Be without, have less than enough of
8) . Image o f (representation of)
the sensory data
distort
resemble
lack
adjust
percept
record v. [ri'koid]
n. [’reko:d]
versatility
sample
IX.
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning (1+2).
a) intense, static, obvious, sim ilar, ex ternal, stable,
resem ble, hungry, am biguous, d ifferent, in ternal,
dynamic, differ, dim, reversible, satiated.
b) sense, conscious, related, compatible, fortunate, aware,
ambiguous, proper, continuous, rational, similar, ade­
quacy, lead v., interpret, reasonable, unreasonable, un­
ambiguous, discontinuous, improper, dissimilar, inade­
quacy, unrelated, incompatible, unaware, misinterpret,
unfortunate, mislead, unconscious, irrational, nonsense.
Sum up the prefixes giving the opposite meaning.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning (1+2).
a)
obvious, rapid, plain, match v., similar, shade, fit n.,
view n., compatible.
135
b) shadow, alike, vision, apparent, adjust, fast, simple,
convulsion, identical, fit v., sight, harmonious, quick,
tint, easy, consistent, evident, seizure.
X.
1. Form adverbs from the following adjectives adding the
suffix -fy and translate both, then rearrange them in
alphabetical order.
extreme, apparent, unfortunate., spontaneous, uniform,
whole, remarkable, evident, manifest, odd, similar,
obvious, dramatic, conventional, eventual, accidental,
occasional.
2. Fill in the table of derivatives with the words from the
noun
equality
verb
adjective
adjustable
visualize
identity
appear
intense
perceive
1.
2.
3.
relate
3. Supply the missing words that all derive from the same
root.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Reversible figures like the Necker cube indicate that our
perceptions are not a static mirroring of visual stimuli. ... <Ger.)
can be thought of as a search for the best interpretation of sensory
information, based on our knowledge of the characteristics of
136
objects. From a cognitive viewpoint, a ... (Part.) object is a hypothesis
suggested by the sensory data. The pattern of the Necker cube
contains no clue as to which of two alternative hypotheses is
correct, so the ... system entertains, or tests, first one and then
the other hypothesis and never settles on an answer. The problem
arises because the Necker cube is a three-dimentional object
represented on a two-dimentional surface. If we were to see it in
three-dimentional form, there would be many cues to tell us
which hypothesis to choose (Gregory, 1970).
The notion of hypothesis testing emphasizes the active
nature o f .... The ... system does not passively sense inputs, but
searches for the ... that is most consistent with the sensory
data. In most situations there is only one reasonable inter­
pretation of the sensory data, and the search of the co rrect...
proceeds as quickly and automatically that we are unaware of
it. Only under unusual conditions, as when we view ambiguous
figures, does the hypothesis-testing nature o f ... become
apparent.
XI.
Check the word which does not be belong
I. obtain
spin
rotate
2. reproduce
relate
record
5. subjective
satiated
visual
superficial
3. versatility
constancy
analogy
4. reasonable
stable
resemble
6. determine
measure
satisfy
enrich
X II.
Translate the texts below:
a). Here is the ending of the text “PERCEPTION”.
Read it, say what one might expect, then translate.
137
The fourth experiment is of a rather different kind. With
ears plugged, their eyes beneath translucent goggles and their
bodies either encased in cotton wool, or floating naked in
water at body tem perature, people are deprived for
considerable periods of external stimulation. Contrary to what
one might expect, however, such circumstances result not in a
lack of perceptual experience but rather a surprising change in
what is perceived. The subjects in such an experiment begin to
see, feel and hear things which bear no more relationship to
the immediate external world than does a dream in someone
who is asleep. These people are not asleep yet their
hallucinations, or so called ‘autistic’ perceptions, may be as
vivid, if not more so, than any normal percept.
b). OUR PERSONALITY AFFECTS OUR STYLE OF PERCEIVING
THE WORLD.
People behave, the circumstances permitting, according
to the facts as they see them. How they see the facts is partly
determined by their personality characteristics. In a study,
people were asked to locate a simple figure hidden in a larger,
more complex figure. Some persons found this to be a timeconsuming task. They found the task of separating the simple
figure from the background in which it was embedded difficult.
It seems that for some people, perceptions are dependent
largely on everything they see in their environment. Individuals
whose judgements were based more on the visual surroundings
took a longer time to fmd the hidden figures (Witkin, 1950).
In a second study, the subject was seated in a chair that
could be tilted. The room, which was darkened, could also be
tilted. The subject had to decide when he was in the upright
position. This decision could be based on what he saw in the
room or on the feelings of the pull of gravity on his body.
Subjects who depended on what they saw instead of their
bodily feelings were the same ones who took a long time to
discover the hidden figures. These subjects were called field138
dependent because they depended more on the perceptual field
than others (Witkin et al, 1954).
It was found that the field-dependent persons differed from
the field-independent with respect to certain personality charac­
teristics. The former were more passive, more submissive,
and more dependent on others. They also had lower self­
esteem. These results support the idea that our personalities
have an effect on how we see the world.
GRAMMAR:
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
XIII.
1. Read the text below, pick out the sentences with the
Conditional Mood and translate them. The notes below will
help you.
OBJECT CONSTANCY
The fact that objects do not seem to change in size as the
distance increases is known as size constancy. Actually, the
farther away an object is from us, the smaller is the image of
the object on the retina ['retina] of our eyes. The size of an
unfamiliar object is judged by its relative size to familiar objects
around it. If a spaceship from Mars were to land* in your
city, you could judge its size by comparing the spaceship to
the buildings and trees next to it. In other words, size constancy
depends on the surroundings. And it would tend to disappear
if a strange object landed in a strange desert with no familiar
objects around it.
There are other factors that contribute to size constancy. For
example, if you were to make left turns in front of a yellow car
and a black car, the chances of an accident would be greater
while turning in front of a black car. The reason is that a black
* were to land - if by any chance a spaseship from Mars landed ...
139
object always seems farther away than a bright object when both
are really equidistant from us (Lawrence, 1949).
Object constancy refers not only to size but also to shape,
colour and brightness. Think of the confusion that would exist if
we responded to every aspect of our world in terms of* retinal
images alone. Fortunately, it is not so. When we have become
familiar with an object we tend to recognize its characteristics no
matter where it is placed. Within certain limits we see things as
we know them to be rather than as the retinal image alone tells
us they are.
Even though object constancy is not perfect it helps
to explain why the world about us seems to be relatively
stable.
2. Translate the last sentence of the third paragraph of the
text “PERCEPTION”.
XIV.
Read the notes and translate the examples given.
e.g. Supposing a storm broke out, what would you do?
Your mother would be furious if she could see you
now.
I ’d hurry up if I were you.
All these are cases of “unreal” condition, expressing probability.
The verb in the Conditional Mood can also have continuous,
perfect and passive forms.
e.g. You’d be invited to more parties if you smiled more often.
I would have told you if I’d realized you didn’t know.
If Peter hadn’t phoned, they’d have been sitting in the
house watching TV when the bomb went off.
He wouldn’t have come unless** you had invited him.
*in terms of -с точки зрения; в терминах
* * if ... not
140
a) . Talking about the present and future
The PAST verb-form suggests that the situation is less impossible,
or imaginary; the Conditional here = would + inf.
e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
I would like you better if you were quieter.
Compare: If I become president, I ’l l ... (said by a candidate
in an election)
If I became president, V d ... (said by a schoolboy)
b) . Talking about the past
The PERFECT verb-form suggests that the things discussed
did not really happen (imagining what would have happened,
if things had been different); the Conditional here = would +
Pert. inf.
eg. If you had worked harder last year you would probably
have passed your exams.
(you didn’t work hard and you didn’t pass your exams
last year).
1 don’t know what would have happened if Jane hadn’t
been able to speak Greek.
Unless he were an expert, he wouldn’t have settled the
problem.
NOTE: WOULD may be changed for COULD or MIGHT
to express modality.
XV.
Compare the given facts and conditions based on them.
Make up sentences as in the examples below.
1) . Since she doesn’t love him, she won’t marry him. (If
she loved him, she would marry him.)
2) . This exercise is very easy, so everyone will get the cor­
rect answer. (If... were difficult, no one would g e t...)
14!
3) . As l haven’t a watch, I can’t tell you the time.
(If I had... I could te ll...)
4) . I know how it works, I can tell you what to do. (Ff I
didn’t know how it worked, 1 couldn’t tell ...)
Do you agree that the Conditional here represents what is
contrary to present fact?
XVI.
Choose the appropriate form. Tick the sentences where two
variants are possible.
a) . If I (knew, had known) his address, I would (write,
have written) to him.
b) . If a fire brigade (arrived, had arrived) but a quarter of
an hour earlier, the roof wouldn’t (crash, have crashed).
c) . If he (took, had taken) my advice, he would (see, have
seen) the matter differently.
d) . If our senses (didn’t work, hadn’t worked) in harmony,
we might not (be, have been) given a complex, multidimentional impression of the world.
e) . It we were to see the Necker cube in three-dimentional
form, there would (be, have been) many cues to tell
us which hypothesis to choose.
f) . If you (were, had been) permitted to experience the
distorted room (A. Ames, 1952) even with a probing
stick, the room would gradually (begin, have begun)
to look like what it really is - just a distorted room!
g) . If we (were, had been) able to force our brain to work
at only half its capacity, we could, without any difficulty
w hatever, (le a rn , have learned) 40 languages,
(m em orize, have m em orized) th e Large Soviet
Encyclopedia from cover to cover, and (complete, have
completed) the required courses of dozens of colleges.
142
XVII.
Carry out an opinion poll. (Pick out one question and
put it to every student in your group). Use the following
questions:
- What would you do if you saw a house on fire?
- What famous person would you like to meet if you had
the chance?
- Which books or gramophone records would you take
with you if you went to live on a desert island?
- What cities or other places of interest would you visit if
you went to America? (Great Britain? Central Asia?)
- What would you say or do if someone called you a fool?
- What changes would you make in your house, assuming
you had the money?
- What would you do (or not do) if you could live your
life over again?
- If President Kennedy hadn’t been killed, would any
radical changes have taken place in America? Why?
Give your reason for asking this or that questions then sum up
the group’s answers and draw your conclusions.
XVIII.
1. Make up a chain story. Begin like this:
If I hadn’t overslept
If I were not interested in psychology...
2. Think what would happen if our senses (vision, hearing,
smell, taste, touch, equilibrium) were more/less sensitive.
3. Describe the town where you live, or your faculty
incorporating
a) comments on its disadvantages or shortcomings (If there
were more cinemas in the town it would be a lovelier place. If
they had installed a lift in the building we wouldn’t have to
walk up so many stairs...)
43
b) suggestions fo r future projects
(If the authorities improved the road system we wouldn’t
get so many traffic jams...)
XIX.
Fill in the table of Conditional forms.
C ON D 1T I О N (IF...)
REAL
know(s)
UNREAL
Present,
Future
Past
READING
knew
were
had known
AND
GONSEQUENCE
(shall)
will
might
would
could
write
DISCUSSION
XX.
Reorder the jumbled paragraphs and sentences to see the
logical structure of the passage. (Groupwork).
ANALYSIS-BY-SYNTHES IS
Topic sentences of the two paragraphs:
a)
. The history of perceptual theory has involved a debate
between extreme positions.
b) . A theory that views perception as an active, hypothesis­
testing process - influenced by context and past experience
- has been called analysis-by-synthesis (1976).
Remaining jumbled sentences:
1). As more and more evidence accumulates, it becomes
apparent that neither theory alone can explain the range
of perceptual phenomena.
144
Ш, The term «analysis-by-synthesis» .implies that the
penceiver “analyses” the object into features a id then
uses these features to “synthesize” for construct) a
percept that best fits all of the information - the sensory
input, the context, and past experience.
3) . Some aspects of perception are innate and determined
by the structure of the nervous system.
4) . According to this theory, the perceiver uses features of
the object, its context, and past experiences to make a
“best guess’* about what is seen.
5) . Analysis-by-synthesis is a useful theory for emphasizing
the cognitive nature of perceptions.
6) . One position views perception as an active cognitive
process, while the other sees it as a mechanistic system
fixed by the inherent structure of the nervous system.
7) . Modern research is not concerned with defending or
attacking either of these positions, but rather with
building a theory that incorporates the best of both.
8) . But it is not the full story.
Write the passage down and say whether a theory that
incorporates the best of both has been built. (Remember
Bruner’s definition: “Perception is an act of categorization”).
XXI.
1. Read the abstract of the main passage and choose which
of the following statements best summarizes it:
a) . People are apathetic towards noise.
b) . Noise pollution is worse in industrialized societies than
in non-industrialized societies.
c) . Noise pollution is a serious environmental concern.
d) . Noise can have harmful physiological and psychological
effects.
1 0 Зак. 3300
145
NOISE POLLUTION
A we 11-documented body of information exists showing
that noise can adversely (неблагоприятно, отрицательно)
affect humans in both physiological and psychological ways.
Hearing losses in particular occupations such as boiler-making
and construction work are well known. In fact, however, we
all find hearing more difficult as we age. Young ears can
distinguish a wide range of sounds from low to very high
frequencies, while older ears lose the ability to distinguish
high-pitched sounds. A comparison of some industrialized versus
non-industrialized peoples suggests that this hearing loss may
not be a requisite accompaniment of old age.
Furthermore, a closer inspection of other data reveals eco­
nomic effects. For instance, an increased turnover in property
has been observed in noisy areas near airports. Job performance
can be adversely affected by loud noise, especially if accuracy
and mental effort are involved. When interference with televi­
sion or speech or sleep is included, as many as 22 to 44
million people can be said to have lost part of the use of their
homes and grounds because of noise.
Thus, noise pollution is a serious environmental concern.
The apathetic attitude toward noise should be overcome;
vigorous efforts should be made to alert (предупреждать об
опасности) people to the grave effects which may stem from
an excessively noisy environment.
(Suggest a purpose for reading the abstract.)
2. Now read the passage and say what information from it
has been compressed in the abstact. Why?
NOISE POLLUTION
Research has shown that noise affects people in several
different ways. Hearing damage is the most well-known effect.
Hearing damage involves some injury to the receptor cells,
or the structure containing them, in the inner ear. The drum
146
and middle ear are very rarely damaged by noise. Only an
extremely loud sound pressure could burst the eardrum. Noise
can also have more subtle effects. It may influence task
performance, deteriorate one’s mental or physical state,
interfere with sleep, and increase the rate o f accidents.
In the age range 5 to 10 years significant hearing damage
is mainly caused by toy caps (пистоны). In the range 10 to
15 years, loss is caused by toy caps and firearms. The main
problem in the 18 and over group is occupational exposure.
It is estimated that 6 to 16 million workers in such occu­
pations as construction, heavy industry, flying, printing,
mechanized farming and truck driving are exposed regularly
to hazardous noise levels. In addition, some recent studies
contain disturbing evidence o f hearing loss among nonoccupationally exposed young people. It is suspected that
listening to amplified rock-and-roll music may be causing
hearing loss among young people on an epidemic scale
(в ... масштабах).
Frequent exposure to noises o f 80 db (A)* or above and
even exposure of a sufficient duration to sounds of the 70 to
80 db (A) range probably lead to diminished hearing ability. It
has been suggested that noises in the range of 70 db (A) or
greater should be reduced or avoided to prevent gradual hearing
loss with age.
Noise causes 3 types of physiological responses. First, there
is a voluntary muscle response in which the head and eyes
turn to the noise source and the body prepares for action.
This is exemplified by a startled (вздрагивать, пугаться)
response to a sudden loud noise.
Second, the involuntary muscles respond to noises over
70 decibels by general reduction in blood flow to the peripheral
body parts (fingers, toes, ears) and changes in such functions
Ш heart rate and breathing.
*(A) - initial stage of the noise scale (I - 90db).>
147
Third, loud noises can cause neuroendocrine responses
which, from animal experiments, appear to affect sexual and
reproductive functions and which cause overgrowth of the
adrenal glands, among other effects. These results, of course,
cannot be directly extrapolated to humans. Nonetheless, workers
exposed to high noise levels exhibit an increased incidence o f
cardiovascular disease, ear, nose and throat problems, and
equilibrium disorders. For instance, German steelworkers have
been shown to have a higher than normal incidence of abnormal
heart rhythms.
Adverse psychological responses to noise have been noted
in several areas. Task performance is affected by noise that is
intermittent (прерывистый), although steady state noise even
up to 90 db (A) does not seem to have much effect. Complex
tasks are affected more than simple ones, and accuracy is
reduced more than quantity. Even when good performance is
m aintained, excess noise is fatiguing (утомлять). People
working in noisy environments are much less tolerant of noise
in their non-occupational environment than those working
in quiet surroundings. Time judgement is another response
upset by noise. Certain types of noise can, of course, be helpful,
such as rhythmic noises or those which mask distracting sounds.
More commonly, however, noise has been shown to produce
anxiety symptoms such as headache, nausea pnorsjd] and
irritability. One study indicated that mental hospital admissions
are more numerous in noisy areas than in comparable quiet
ones.
The economic costs o f noise to society are several. Air­
ports are currently operating at less than capacity (с неполной
нагрузкой) because o f noise regulations which restrict their
hours of operation. For instance, at Washington’s National
Airport no jet traffic is allowed from И pm to 7 am. Other
airports restrict the use of certain runways. One estimate is
that noise restrictions reduce possible airport use by 20 per
cent.About $ 6 billion would be required to equip all existing
148
.Ill engines
with noise control devices. Insulation from air traffic
noise may also be provided.
If all aircraft were made quieter by existing methods there would
be a number of economic benefits. Property values near airports
might rise. An increase in airport capacity would occur. Transportation
costs to and from airports could be diminished since the airports now
could be located closer to population centres.
Much research still needs to be done on the economic aspects
of noise abatement (ослабление, уменьшение) and noise effects.
Although some of the effects of noise pollution are known,
more must be discovered about its effects on health, productivity,
property values and the quality of life. Furthermore, the cost of
noise pollution control to the economy as a whole needs to be
illuminated.
The public must be alerted to the dangers and economic
costs of noise pollution so that people may make intelligent
choices and exert (оказывать) appropriate pressures.
3) . Make up your own summary of the passage.
4) . Here are some opinions about the passage:
inconclusive, dull, trivial, muddled;
contains insufficient evidence, but the conclusions are
valid;
wrong, inaccurate, irrelevant;
contains essential facts, the case is well argued.
Which ones do you agree with? Justify your choices.
X XII.
Sum up the passage by answering the questions below:
1) . What attracted the scientist’s attention?
2) . What did the study of laboratory and real life? situations
reveal?
3) . Why is the author worried about the effects o f light?
149
FLICKER1
Grey Walter examined hundreds of people who had never
had any kind of fit or attack and found that about one in
every twenty responded to carefully adjusted flicker. They
experienced ‘strange feelings' or faintness or swimming in
the head; some became unconscious for a few moments or
their limbs jerked in rhythm with the light. As soon as any
such sensation was reported, the flicker was turned off to
prevent a complete convulsion. In other subjects, the flicker
had to be exactly matched with the brain rhythm to produce
any effects. A feedback circuit (fs a rk itj зам кнутая
электроцепь), in which the flashing light was actually fired
(вызван) by the brain signals themselves, produced immediate
epileptic seizures in more than half the people tested.
Driving down a tree-lined avenue with the sun flickering
through the tree trunks at a certain rhythm can be very
disturbing. There is a record of a cyclist who passed out (терять
сознание) on several occasions while travelling home down
such an avenue. In his case the momentary unconsciousness
stopped him from pedalling, so he slowed down to a speed at
which the flicker no longer affected him and came round
(приходить в себя) in time to save himself from falling. But a
motor-car would keep going at the critical speed and influence
the driver long enough to make him lose control altogether.
There is no way of knowing how many fatal crashes have
occured this way.
In another case, a man found that every time he went to
the cinema he would suddenly find that he was consumed
(охвачен) by an overwhelming desire to strangle the person
sitting next to him. On one occasion he even came to his
senses to discover that he had his hands clutched around his
neighbour’s throat. When he was tested, it was found, that he*
* Choose the definition; a) bright light, b) fluorescent fight, c) flashing
light, d) sunlight.
150
developed violent limb jerking when the flicker Щ Ц Ц I i t
twenty-tour cycles per second, which Si exactly t$m Aptfmi
of film recorded at twenty-four frames a second.
The implications of this discovery are enormous. Every
day we are exposed to flicker in some way and run the risk of
illness or fatal fits. The flash rate o f fluorescent lights at 100
to 120 per second is too high for convulsions, but who knows
what effect it may be having on those exposed to it for many
hours each day?
XXIII.
1. Read the text and draw pictures of illusions (Fig. A-D).
VISUAL ILLUSIONS
For the most part, our perceptions serve us very well.
Most o f the time, seeing is believing. However, our
perceptions do fail at times and such failures provide important
clues about how the perceptual process works. Hence, in the
study of perception, psychologists have turned to illusions, in
which perceptions are m isleading, in ord er to better
understand the process.
Psychologists have studied geometrical illusions for many
years but still do not totally agree on their explanations. Some
illusions are based on relative size in contrast with surround­
ings (Fig. A). Others may be understood if we suppose the
figures to be projected in the third dimension. If the horizontal
lines (Fig. B) were.placed on a system of wires (провода)
meeting at the horizon, they would have to be curved in
order to be seen as parallel. But because we tend to view these
figures as though they were* perspective (three-dimentional)
drawings, we see the parallel lines as curved.
Fig.C, the Ponzo illusion, can be better understood if we
look at a picture of railroad tracks converging (сходящиеся)*
*as though they were - (форма Subjunctive Mood) - как будто бы
это (они) объемные рисунки
151
in the distance. We know from experience that the distant
railroad ties are the same size as the near ones, even though
the retinal image they give is much smaller. If real objects
were lying between the tracks the upper one would be perceived
as more distant. Because the brain tries to compensate for the
expected shrinkage of images (even though in this ease there
is no shrinkage for which to compensate), we see the upper
object as larger.
The Muller-Lyer pattern of perceived length vs.* [(va:sds]
measured length (Fig. D) shows lines that are both about one
inch long. As observed without physical Instruments, 1 appears
shorter than %
2. Give your own examples of illusions.
3. Account for the fact that some illusions (e.g. C) become
greater from childhood to adulthood.
XXIV.
Read the passage, agree with the true statements; reject the
false ones. Account for your choice. Use the following:
Exactly; Just the reverse; While I accept that ..; I can’t
agree th a t...
Gradually we learn to integrate inputs from all the sense
modalities into large and powerful total perceptions that serve
as a major foundation of knowledge for later higher level
learning and thinking.
Integrating principles help us to understand perception
better; (1) We must have a minimum of sensory stimulation.
(2) The manner in which we perceive the environment is
innate and can’t be changed. (3) Cognitive dissonance, crisis,
psycho-therapy, and persuasion can change perceptions. (4)
Social pressures can’t change perceptions. (5) Education plays
a major role in changing perceptions, as well as membershi p
* vs. Ш versus prep. (Lat.) - в противовес, против
152
in social, religious and political groups. (6) Much o f what we
perceive is selective and reflects our personality characteristics.
Of all the subjective factors affecting the way we see the
world, the self-concept is perhaps the most influential. That
is, how a person typically tends to view himself will have much
to do with how he views the world, and particularly other
people in the world.This relationship between the self-concept
and perception has been considered by some psychologists to
be so important that an entire theory had been developed
around the principle.This point of view, called perceptual, or
phenomenological, has as its central concern the following
ideas:......
Finish the test. Illustrate the principles of perception.
XXV.
Read the passage and answer the questions below.
IT’S NORMAL TO SEE THINGS
DIFFERENTLY
Have you ever read a book that put you to sleep every time
you picked it up? Have you ever seen a painting in a museum that
resembled something done by children while wiping their brushes
clean? If so, you probably suffered from deep feelings of guilt or
anxiety. You may have asked, "What is wrong with me? Why
can’t I see the wonders of these masterpieces?”
These feelings are understandable for we continually
compare our standards and opinions with those o f others.
Such comparisons are often valuable for one thing: they can
lead to a more realistic appreciation of normal individual
differences. However, ’if we always accept the standards of
others as being the only correct ones, then we will suffer,
needlessly, from feelings of inadequacy. Today more than ever
before, because of the strong influence of the mass media of
communications and advertising, we need to maintain the
153
dignity and integrity of individual difference and to avoid the
idea that there is only one correct answer or interpretation.
The realization that all persons do not perceive the world in
the same way should further encourage us to be unique,
alive, and growing individuals.
a) . What reasons are there for different people to see the
world differently?
b) . What do people do to cope with the anxiety they feel?
c) . What makes people conform? Is it any good to conform?
2. Make up a questionnaire to find out the group’s views on
the problem. Carry out an opinion poll. Report the results.
XXVI.
Read the text to discuss the following:
a) . Is it fair to promote such waste (from the consumer’s
point of view)?
b) . What similar schemes could you suggest?
c) .What principle of perception made it possible?
A colour consultant from Toronto explained to the Colour
Council meeting in New York an ingenious scheme he had
conceived* for increasing the sale of potato peelers. He began
by pointing out a puzzling fact. Since potato peelers “never
wear out”, enough are sold in two years in his country to
put one in every home. What happens to them? He gave this
answer: “Investigation reveals that they get thrown away with
the potato peelings.” One of his colleagues, he added, had
then come up with the dazzling plan for helping along this
throw-away process. He proposed, that their company paint
their peelers “as much like a potato peeling as possible” .
*to conceive a scheme - make up a plan
154
However, a potato-со loured peeler wouldn’t have much eyeappeal on the sales counter. They decided to solve that by
displaying the peeler on a colourful card. Once the housewife
got the peeler home and removed the bright card, the chances
that she would lose the peeler were excellent...
XXVII.
Read the text. Arrange a discussion and/or an interview
(groupwork).
a) . A group of journalists interviewing Shaefer and Novomeisky;
b) . Scientists doubting the phenomenon of Rosa Kuleshova
versus Shaefer and Novomeisky.
EYELESS SIGHT
In 1960 a medical board examined a girl in Virginia and
found that, even with thick bandages over her eyes, she was
able to distinguish different colours and read short sections of
large print. The phenomenon is obviously not new, but it has
reached new peaks of sensitivity in a young woman from a
mountain village in the Urals.
Rosa Kuleshova can see with her fingers. She is not blind,
but because she grew' up in a family of blind people, she
learned to read Braille to help them and then went on to
teach herself to do other things with her hands. In 1962 her
physician took her to Moscow, where she was examined by
the Soviet Academy of Science, and emerged a celebrity,
certified as genuine. The neurologist Shaefer made an intensive
study with her and found that, securely blindfolded with
only her arms stuck through a screen, she could differentiate
among three primary colours. To test the possibility that the
cards reflected heat differently, he heated some and cooled
others without affecting her response to them. He also found
that she could read newsprint and sheet music (ноты) under
glass, so texture was giving her no clues. Tested by the
psychologist Novomeisky, she was able to identify the colour
and shape of patches of light projected on to . her palm
(ладонь) or on to a screen. In rigidly controlled tests, with a
blindfold and a screen and a piece of card around her neck so
wide that she could not see round it, Rosa read the small print
in a newspaper with her elbow. And, in the most convincing
demonstration of all, she repeated these things with someone
standing behind her pressing hard on her eyeballs. Nobody
can cheat under this pressure; it is even difficult to see clearly
for minutes after it is released.
For the discussion use the following:
That’s true b u t Y o u have a point there b u t 1 see your
point b u t 1 doubt that
1 doubt if
It’s hardly likely
that
I’m afraid it’s too much to say that ..; What
seems doubtful to me is That doesn’t sound convincing
enough
I agree entirely ...
XXVIII.
1. Go back to the text NOISE POLLUTION and answer
the following questions.
a) . Do you agree with the writer’s recommendations.
b) . Do the writer’s arguments justify taking noise pollution
as seriously as other types of pollution (water, air,
insecticide and industrial types of pollution)?
c) . What are the physiological effects of these types of
pollution!23
**
What are their economic consequences?
2. Compare them in importance with noise
pollution.
156
LISTEN IN G
C O M PR EH EN SIO N
XXIX.
DO LOUD NOISES BOTHER YOU?
Listen to the text and answer the headline question. Say
whether you accept the findings of the researchers.
XXX.
DISTORTED PERCEPTION
1. Listen to the description and say which of the three figures
is the plan of the distorted room described in the text.2
2. Listen to a longer variant of the text and discuss the value
of the study.
UNIT VII
READING
TECHNIQUES
I.
Link-words at the beginning of each paragraph give clues to
the development of the text. Look through them and give
your ideas about what each paragraph might contain. Then
read the paragraphs below and match them to the linkwords.
AROUSAL and EMOTION
Most of the time we are fairly clear about the emotions
we are experiencing; we know whether we are angry or
frightened or merely excited (возбуждены). But our
physiological responses under all three conditions are
remarkably similar. Fear makes our heart beat faster, but so
does anger or the sight of a loved one. Our face may flush or
pale when we are angry (depending on the individual), and
the same is true when we are frightened. While there are fairly
accurate measures that tell us when a person is emotionally
aroused, research so far has failed to find physiological patterns
that are unique to different emotional states.
But...; Although...; That’s why...; Indeed... .
... bodily sensations may not be related to specific emotions,
they do determine the intensity with which we experience
emotions. The importance of bodily sensations is demonstrated
by a study of the emotional life of individuals with spinal cord
injuries. When the spinal cord is severed(['sevid] повреждать),
sensations below the point of injury are not communicated to
the brain. The patients can make the appropriate emotional
response when the situation calls for it, but they don’t really feel
emotional.
ш some theori-sts concluded that people t a d to evaluate
(Оценивать) their feelings by comparing themselves to others
around them. When I feeling is aroused, they may label their
emotion as happiness, amusement ( у д о в о л ь с т в и е ) , or anger,
depending on the circumstances (обстоятельства).
... being aware that something is going on internally when
we are angry, excited, or afraid, we are not very good at
discriminating the changes in our heart rate or blood pressure
or the activity in our stomach ([*stum*k] - желудок). When
we are asked to describe our emotions, we usually begin with
the arousing circumstances - that is, what angered, pleased
or frightened (испугать) us. Then we describe some of our
bodily reactions and our difficulties in dealing with the
situation. But we don’t define the emotion solely (только) in
terms of their own internal feelings.
... emotions are difficult to study because of the complexity
and interrelatedness of the physiological responses involved and
because the kinds of emotions that can be aroused in the laboratory
do not compare in intensity with those experienced in real life. A
clever experimenter may be able to arouse a moderate (умеренный
) degree of anger in a subject, but ethical and practical constraints
(зд. ограничения) restrict the amount of fear that can be induced
(вызывать) in an experiment.
II.
Read the text and guess the meaning of the missing word.
Make the right choice: fear, surprise or empathy (and their
derivatives).
Although ... is an influential directive in all interactions
and vital (важный) to communication, its full implications
(значение ) remain unknown. Lack of specificity regarding a
definition of... has been a major obstacle to meaningful study.
Psychological measures of ... have been designed to assess
(оценивать) 3 types of an individual’s ability to ... with another
159
individual, the ability of 2 individuals to ... with another
individual, each other, and mass ... or the individual’s ability
to ... with a group.
Different measures of ... have been found to be unrelated
to one another or lacking in internal consistency (последова­
тельность). The properties of a ... stimulus also pose a problem
for the investigator — certain individuals are easier to ... with
than others, and the outgoing behaviour of the person being
... with is influential in determining whether effective ... will
occur.
T E X T STUDY
III.
Before studying the text by Dr. Stafford-Clark decide
whether the following statements are true or false.
a) . Emotional development of young children depends on
their parents.
b) . The child’s ability to control the motor or expressive
side of his mind and body is quite unformed.
c) . The child’s capacity for correlating and interpreting
incoming messages to the brain at birth is completely
developed.
d) . It is impossible for the child to regain an emotional
equilibrium within normal limits.
e) . Children reflect the moods and preoccupation of their
parents.
Now read the text to see whether you were right.
Entitle it.
From birth until about the age of four, the whole of the
child’s emotional needs and their expression and satisfaction are
centred on the mother. It is as though the child were still in
many ways contained within the mother, in so far as her
160
personality and her feelings intervene* (of necessity) between
the child and his experience of any form of outside reality, and
may powerfully influence his response to such experience. At
birth that part of his nervous system responsible for delivering
incoming messages in the form of sensations to his brain is relatively
completely developed, but his capacity for correlating and
interpreting them is negligible, and his ability to control the motor
or expressive side of his mind and body is quite unformed even
if he knew what he wished to do with it. But the continual
bombardment of sensory experience* to which he is subjected
during his waking hours, and the constant and inevitable sorting
and assimilation of these experiences for which his brain is
equipped, leads him within amatter of months to recognise first
that there is a part of life and experience which is permanently
with him, and a part, constantly fluctuating, which is in some
way beyond and outside him.
The division which the child may be imagined to be making
at this stage is between what is ‘me’-what is ‘not me’. The most
important single aspect of the part of experience which is ‘not
me’ comes to be recognised as a constant element against an
inconstant background; and this soon turns into a recognition of
the mother as another person, instinctively accepted as the
indispensable link between ‘me’ and everything else. This
relationship is atundamental one which has to occur if the
child is to develop normally, although of course it can be made
with any other individual who occupies the mother’s place in
the early life of the childlt is the mother’s own special relationship
to the child and her personal feelings about him which tend to
make her the ideal person to fulfil this role.
From the age about four to about seven there is a change
in his relationship occasioned (вызванное) by the child’s
growing capacity to form separate and enduring (прочный)
relationships with other people, although the support and
*The evidence of the five senses - sight, etc.
11 Зак. 3300
161
•influence of the mother are o f supreme importance in forming
the child’s attitude to these relationships as well as to all else
that happens to him.His relationship with his father will by
this time have begun to be important one, and even rela­
tionships beyond the family circle, dependent both for their
quality and quantity upon the family structure and enduring
only as long as the central relationship with the mother
supports and encourages them , begin to be made. The normal
child is by nature eager, hopeful, and accepting; but to say
this is only to say that these qualities will emerge provided
that the parents are themselves reasonably happy, confident,
and accepting in their attitude towards the child.
Nonetheless children are both remarkably plastic and re­
markably resilient (жизнерадостный); they reflect with un­
canny (необыкновенный) fidelity the moods and preoccupa­
tions and tensions o f those nearest and dearest to them, often
without realising or understanding anything about these moods
and tensions at all. But no matter how severe may be the
impact upon a child of unhappiness, resentment, or insecurity
in his parents, it is nearly always possible for that child to
regain an emotional equilibrium within normal limits if the
parental troubles can be removed (снимать) or relieved.
N otes:
Dr. Stafford Clark - a well-known American psychiatrist, writer
and lecturer.
... these qualities will emerge provided that - provided cj.
- если; при условии, что
no m atter how severe may be the impact - каким бы
сильным ни было влияние
in so far as ...
- в той мере, насколько
IV.
Look through the text and single out the main problems
raised.
162
V.
Read the text again and see if you can say
When - the child can make the division between what is ‘me’
and what is ‘not me’;
- the relationship with the father becomes an important one;
- the child’s capacity to form separate and enduring
relationships with other people begins to grow.
What factors influence the child’s future behaviour.
Words to be rem em bered:
background n. - фон
contain v. - содержать/ся/
capacity n. - способность
beyond prep. - за, за пределам
delivery. - посылать
equip v. - оборудовать
eager v. - страстно стремящийся к чему-либо, нетерпеливый
fidelity п. - верность, преданность
fulfil v. - выполнять
intervene v. - вмешиваться
inevitable adj. - неизбежный
indispensable adj. - неотъемлемый
impact n. - влияние
insecurity n. - ненадежность
mood n. - настроение
need n. - необходимость, потребность
negligible adj. - незначительный, ничтожный
occur v. - появиться, возникать
provided adj. - при условии
preoccupation n. - озабоченность
recognize v. - признавать
responsible adj. - ответственный
resentment n. - возмущение, чувство обиды
regain v. - восстанавливать
remove v. - устранять, удалять
relieve v. - облегчать
remarkable adj. - замечательный
163
subjected l|p подверженный чему-либо, склонный к чему-либо
trouble п,- беда
tension п. - напряжение
VI.
h Give Russian equivalents of the following:
child’s em otional needs; experience o f any form o f outside
reality; that part o f his nervous system responsibly for;
incom ing messages; m otor and expressive side o f the m ind
and body; sensory experience; within a m atter o f m onths;
the constant and inevitable sorting and assimilation of child’s
experiences; an inconstant background; indispensable link
between ‘m e’ and everything else.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
оказы вать влияние н а реакцию ребенка; подвергаться
влиянию; в часы бодрствования; проводить разделение;
н а этой стадии; вы полнять роль; способность ф ор­
мировать длительные связи; взаимодействие с другими
людьми вне сем ейного круга; зависимы й качественно
и количественно; зависеть от структуры семьи; по
при роде; качества во зни кн ут при условии; тем не
м е н е е ; к а к бы н и ; в о с с та н о в и т ь э м о ц и о н а л ь н о е
равновесие; устранять родительские беды.
VII.
Write out:
a) th e adjectives and nouns describing th e character or
em otional state o f the child.
b) the verbs th at can be used to describe the occurence
and the developm ent o f em otional states.
V III.
Fit the meaning and the word.
164
Lasting я long time
Certain to happen or appear
3). Power o f the; mind
4). Past experiences
5). Having all one’s attention taken up
6). Make pain or trouble less
7). Able to be trusted
8). W ithout which something cannot be done
9). G et back again
10). State o f feeling at a particular tim e
11|. Supply w hat is needed for som e action
Да
2 ).
background
capacity
in du ring
inevitable
reliable
indispensable
preoccupied
relieve
equip
m ood
regain
IX .
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning.
a) u n fa ith fu ln e s s , go away, c h e e rfu ln e s s, e sse n tia l,
disappear, keep, retain, relaxation.
b) resentm ent, negligible, fidelity, rem ain, break, emerge,
rem ove, tension.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning:
a) worry, wonderful, ability, essential, guide, help,
perform, happen, accept.
b) indispensable, lead, trouble, remarkable, capacity, fulfil,
relieve, recognize, occur.
X.
1. Form verbs from the following nouns and adjectives
adding the suffix ‘-ize\
a) recognition, summary, emphasis, em pathy, m inimum,
organization, analysis, optim um .
b) equal, normal, visual, general, local.
2. Fill in the table of derivatives.
165
Verb
Noun
Adjective
removable
Adverb
neglect
equipment
inevitably
occuranсe
tense'
secure
recognition
resentfully
XI.
Two of the words in each group below are similar in form or
meaning. Check the word that doesn’t belong.
L remarkable
trouble
memorable
2. resentment
encouragement
anger
4. capacity
fidelity
ability
5. family
happily
relatively
3. confident
sure
dependent
X II.
Translate the first and second paragraphs of the text into
Russian.
GRAMMAR: T H E
S U B JU N C T IV E M O O D
X III.
Pick out sentences with the Subjunctive mood from the
text and translate them. The notes below will help you.
1 6 6
X IV .
Read the notes and translate the examples given.
The Subjunctive represents an action as contrary to reality.
The Present Subjunctive refers the action to the present or future.
The Past Subjunctive refers the action to the past.
a)
. The Subjunctive mood is used in conditional clauses of
“unreal” condition (If-clauses).
If he knew English better he would read English books in
the original.
If I had known what was going to happen 1 would never
have left her alone.
If he had taken her address he could telephone her now.
NOTE that the verb TO BE has the form “W ERE” (Present
Subjunctive) for all persons singular and plural.
If I were you 1 wouldn’t do that.
An inversion o f subject and verb may be used instead o f “If”
in the clause.
H ad he taken a little more time to think, he m ight have
acted more sensibly.
Were it not for the fact that his father is on the board of
directors, he would never have got the job.
H ad I known you were ill, I would have visited you.
b)
. In object clauses after “I wish” (жаль, что ), “It’s
tim e” (пора бы) and adverbial clauses of comparison or
manner introduced by “as i f ’, “as though” (как будто бы).
She speaks as if she were English.
She looked as if she had experienced some great loss.
I wish I had not m entioned it at all.
I wish he gave up smoking.
It’s time you finished translating the article.
167
XV.
1. Express your dissatisfaction with the following
(groupwork):
e.g. a). He is not here. - I wish he were,
b). She smokes a lot. - I wish she didn’t.
1) . He doesn’t attend classes regularly.
2) . I was not invited to the party.
3) . They failed at the examination.
4) . I don’t know his address.
5) . It is very late.
2. Compare the given situation with the real fact.
e.g. She dances as if she were a ballerina.
- But she isn’t. She is an amateur dancer.
1) , She speaks English as if it were her native language.
2) . It looks as if it were going to rain.
3) . He discussed the film as if he had seen it several times.
e.g. If I had known his plans I would have come earlier.
- But I didn’t. I wish he could have warned me.
1) . If she gave up smoking she wouldn’t be so pale.
2) . If he had been punished for it he wouldn’t behave like
that again.
3) . If they had studied better they wouldn’t have failed in
mathematics.
XVI.
Choose the appropriate form while reading the passage.
A young man was in a great hurry and very excited. He
jumped into a taxi and cried to the driver: “ Drive like fury!”
After about ten minutes of such mad driving the young man
thought: “ It’s time we (arrived, arrive)”. Looking out of the
!68
window he was greatly surprised: “ I feel as if I never (saw,
had seen) this part of the town before!” he said to himself.
“Where are you driving to?” he asked the driver. “ You had
better not deceive me and tell me at once!” “ But I don’t
know”, the driver answered. “ If you (had told, told) me
where to take you I would be driving in that direction now”.
And the young man did understand what had happened. “Poor
me”, he thought, “ I do wish I (had told, told) him where to
drive. And now it looks as if I (had missed, missed) my train
and as if I were late for my own wedding”.
XVII.
Respond to the following questions expressing your regret
and giving your reasons for it.
e.g. Did you go to the cinema yesterday?
Yes, I did. But I wish I hadn’t, the film was very dull.
1) . Is your memory perfect?
2) . Did you take part in the Conference yesterday?
3) . Did you watch TV yesterday?
4) . Did our team win at the Olympics?
5) . Were you present at the concert yesterday?
6) . Arc you a member of the club “Young Psychologist”?
XVIII.
Fill in the table of Subjunctive forms. Use the verbs ‘to do’
and ‘to be’.
Signal of the
Subj. mood
I wish . . .
If...
Present
Subjunctive
Past
Subjunctive
smb.
..as i f ...
..as though...
..even though...
169
X IX .
Make up sentences matching the suggested parts. Give
reasons for your choice.
One should treat
(shouldn’t treat)
a dangerously
sick person
as
if
everything
were all right
an adopted
child
a subject
he were a
child
a sixteen year
old boy
he were not
at experiment
(s)he were not
seriously ill.
(s)he were his
own child
an actress after a
failure
READING
AND
DISCUSSION
XX.
The text below describes the James-Lange and Canon-Bard
theories on emotion. Read it and find the answer to the
following questions (groupwork):
a) . Why did James-Lange theory seem to put the cart
before the horse?
b) . What are the major objections to the James-Lange
theory? Are they meaningful?
THEORIES OF EMOTION
We tend to think that bodily changes that occur in response
to stress are caused by emotion. But one o f the earliest theories
o f emotion proposed that the perception o f the physiological
changes is the emotion. William James, a famous psychologist
at Harvard during the late 1800s, believed that the important
170
factor in our felt emotion is the feedback from the bodily
changes th at occur in response to a frightening or upsetting
situation. He stated this theory in a form that seems to put the
cart before the horse: “We are afraid because we run” . “We
are angry because we strike” . A Danish physiologist, Carl
Lange, arrived at a similar proposal about the same time, and
the theory is referred to as the James-Lange theory.
We can think of instances where the recognition of emotion
does follow bodily responses. If you stumble suddenly on the
stairs, you automatically grab for the handrail before you
have time to recognise a state o f fear. Your felt emotion, after
the crisis is over, includes the perception of a pounding heart,
rapid breathing, and a feeling of weakness or trembling in the
arms and legs. Because the feeling o f fear follows the bodily
responses, this situation gives some plausibility (вероятность)
to the James-Lange theory.
The major objections to the James-Lange theory came from
Walter Cannon, a physiologist at the University o f Chicago,
who pointed out that “bodily changes do not seem to differ very
much from one emotional state to another, despite the fact that
we as individuals are usually pretty clear about which emotion
we are experiencing; the internal organs are relatively insensitive
structures not well supplied with nerves, and internal changes
occur too slowly to be a source o f emotional feeling; artificially
inducing (вызывать) the bodily changes associated with an
emotion (for example, injecting a person with adrenalin) does
not produce the experience o f the true emotion.
Cannon (1927) assigned the central role in emotion to
the thalamus ['qaelcimas], which is part o f the brain’s central
core. He suggested that the thalamus responded to an emotionproducing stimulus by sending impulses simultaneously to the
cerebral cortex and to other parts o f the body; emotional
feelings were the result of joint arousal to the cortex and the
sympathetic nervous system. According to this theory which
was extended by Bard (1934) and known as the Cannon171
Bard theory, the bodily changes and the experience of emotion
occur at the same time.
Subsequent investigation has m ade it clear that the
hypothalamus and certain parts of the limbic system, rather
than the thalamus, are the brain centers most directly involved
in the integration o f emotional responses.
In view of the complex interaction of neural and hormonal
signals, it is difficult to determine whether the physiological
responses precede or accompany the emotion. Emotion is not a
momentary event, but an experience that takes place oyer a
period of time. An emotional experience may initially be activated
by external inputs to the sensory system; we see or hear the
emotion-arousing stimuli. But the autonomic nervous system is
activated almost immediately so that feedback from bodily changes
adds to the emotional experience. Thus, our conscious experience
of emotion involves the integration of information about the
physiological state of the body and information about the emotionarousing situation. Both types of information tend to be continuous
in time, and their integration determines the intensity and nature
of our felt emotional state.
In this framework, the time distinctions made by the JamesLange and Cannon-Bard theories are not too meaningful. On
some occasions, as in sudden danger, th e first signs o f
emotional experience may be preceded by automatic activity
(in which case James and Lange are correct); on others, the
awareness of an emotion clearly precedes autonomic activity
(in which case C annon and Bard are correct). The felt
emotional state has a third source o f information: cognitive
factors. How an individual appraises (оценивать) the external
situation in terms of memories of past experiences is a cognitive
process that will influence emotion.
2. Make the right choice:
The major objections to the James-Lange theory are:
a) internal changes can be a source o f emotional feeling;
172
b) the bodily changes and experience of emotion occur at
the same time;
c) the internal organs are sensitive structures supplied with
nerves.
Physiological responses
a) precede the emotion;
b) don’t influence the emotion.
The central role in emotion is assigned to
a) the thalamus;
b) the hypothalamus and certain parts of the limbic system;
c) the joint arousal of the cortex and the sympathetic nervous
system.
XXL
1. Read the text to find the difference between motivation
and emotion.
EMOTION
M otivation and em otion are closely related. Anger is
frequently an instigator of aggressive behaviour although such
behaviour can also occur in the absence o f anger. Emotions
can activate and direct behaviour in the same way biological
or psychological motives can. Emotions may also accompany
motivated behavior. Emotions can be a goal; we engage in certain
activities because we know that they will bring us pleasure.
The nature of the relationship between motivation and
emotion, as well as the definition o f emotion itself, is an
unresolved issue in psychology. Most people would say that
anger, fear, joy, and grief are emotions but would classify
hunger, thirst and fatigue as states o f the organism that serve
as motives. What is the difference? Why don’t we call hunger
an emotion?
There is no clear-cut distinction. The most common basis for
differentiating between the two assumes that emotions are usually
173
aroused by external stimuli* and that emotional expression is
directed toward the stimuli in the environment that arouse it.
Motives, on the other hand, are more aroused by internal stimuli
and are “naturally” directed toward certain objects in the
environment (for example, food, water, or a mate). However,
there are a number o f instances when this distinction does not
hold*. For example, an external incentive such as the sight or
smell of delicious food can arouse hunger in the absence of
internal hunger cues. And internal stimuli, such as those caused
by severe food deprivation or pain, can arouse emotion.
Most motivated behaviour has some affective, or emotional
accompaniment, although we may be too preoccupied in our
striving toward the goal to focus on our feeling at the time.
When we talk about motivation we usually focus on the goaldirected activity; in discussing emotion our attention is drawn
to the subjective, affective experiences that accompany the
behaviour. We are apt to be more aware o f our emotions when
efforts to achieve a goal are blocked (anger, despair) or when
the goal is finally attained (pleasure, joy).
In the past, psychologists devoted considerable effort to
trying to classify emotions. They attempted to find dimensions
along which to scale such em otions as sorrow, disgust,
surprise, jealousy, envy, and ecstasy. But such attempts have
not proved very worthwhile (полезный). For our purposes
we will note that emotions can be divided into those that are
pleasant (joy, love) and those that are unpleasant (anger,
fear). In addition, many o f our emotional terms can be classified
by intensity. Word pairs such as displeasure-rage (гнев), painagony, and sadness-grief (печаль) convey differences of
intensity. Some psychologists reserve the term emotion for
the more intense states that are accompanied by widespread
changes in body physiology and call the milder affective states
* ... when this distinction doesn’t hold - когда это различие не
имеет силы.
174
feeling. But there are many intermediate states between mild
experiences of pleasantness or unpleasantness and intense
emotions.
2. Find topic sentences in each paragraph and summarize the
text.
XXII.
Read the text below on anxiety and give one-minute
summary of it.
Although the definition of anxiety as a vague fear as in
“free floating” anxiety* covers many instances, several other
conjectures (предложение) have found some support.
A second use of the term “anxiety” restricts it to a more
specific kind of vague fear - the fear of insecurity. According
to the concept on which this use is based anxiety is social in
its origin, beginning in infancy, when the child is dependent
upon the adults who care for him. Deprivation, neglect, and
loss of affection arouses feelings o f insecurity that the infant
comes to fear. This fear of insecurity is considered the basic
anxiety, and it is always associated with other people. What is
feared is isolation and lack o f affectionate responses from others.
This meaning o f “anxiety” is distinguished from fear in that
things can cause fear but only people can cause insecurity.
The word “anxiety” is used in a third way to mean concern
over our own conduct, that is, feeling o f guilt (вина). We are
uneasy about forbidden im pulses o r past m isdem eanors
(проступки). We fear that if they come to light, our guilt
will be uncovered. Children, for example, learn to show love
and respect for their parents, yet they are often resentful (их
обижает) of parental authority; fear of blurting (высказать,
выболтать) out their hidden resentments (неприязнь) may
* Приходя шее
и уходящее чувство беспокойства
ш
be a source of anxiety. The adolescent may fear to reveal his
intensified interest in sex. Concern about our feelings is
undoubtedly one important form that anxiety takes.
XXIII.
The following text discusses the problem of emotional
suppression and release. Exchange opinions on the necessity
of suppressing emotions (groupwork).
Use the following phrases in your discussion:
I’d like to add that
from my point of view
th a t ..; while I accept th a t... 1 can’t agree th a t...
I doubt
EMOTIONAL SUPPRESSION
AND RELEASE
If some features of emotional behavior are adaptive and
other features disruptive, we need a hygiene of emotions so
that people can enjoy emotional expression without suffering
the damage caused by emotional excesses. The hygiene of
emotions largely involves the question of emotional control.
Does maturity consist primarily of suppressing emotional
expression so that life can be conducted more rationally? Or
is emotional expression a kind of safety valve essential to
healthy living?
Civilization requires us to suppress much overt emotional
expression. To be civilized is to be moderate in behavior, not
to “lose one’s head.” We consider imperturbability (невозму­
тимость) a virtue. While we admire emotional sensitivity in
the form of social warmth and tenderness, we think it should
be exercised with restraint. We conventionally tend to admire
temperance (сдержанность) over free indulgence (потворство
своим желаниям)..
Psychologists doubt the desirability of a general suppres­
sion of emotional expression. Some emotional control is no
176
doubt essential for adults as well as for children, but two
qualifications concerning the amount of control should be
kept in mind. (I) Em otional suppression is not always
successful; instead of being eliminated, the emotion may
express itself in distorted form or in illness. (2) The beneficial
results o f appropriate emotional release can sometimes be
demonstrated.
Many of the physiological aspects of emotional expression
- say, muscular tension or blushing - are not under voluntary
(волевой) control. Hence voluntary suppression may not
completely suppress, much less always succeed in eliminating
the emotional state. Sometimes, however, the suppression goes
on so long and so successfully that one is no longer consciously
aware o f any need to suppress. Under such circumstances the
emotion is said to be repressed.
But even repressed emotions are not lost; by appropriate
means it is possible to find signs that they are still active.
It is not healthful to deny expression to emotional impul­
ses that are genuine and natural. Although free play should
not be given to each and every impulse, emotional control is
possible without any need for emotional denial. When a person
can experience emotionally charged impulses without anxiety
and guilt and can achieve a proper balance between expression
and control, he is then emotionally healthy. He finds it possible
to accept his emotional impulses as natural and to handle
their expression in socially acceptable ways.
It is easy to make generalizations about emotional expression
and emotional control, but the generalizations are often difficult
to apply. For one thing, their application may depend upon
circumstances peculiar to a culture or subculture (for example,
how would they apply to a Buddhist monk?). For another, in
applying them to oneself, one encounters tendencies to selfdeception that make self-regulation of emotion particularly
difficult.
12 Зак. 3300
177
LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
XXIV.
Listen to the text and answer the following questions:
a)
. What are the conventionalized forms of expressing
emotion in this country?
b)
. What is the difference in expressing happiness in China
and in this country?
c)
. What is the way of expressing doubt or disapproval in
this country?
UNIT УШ
READING TECHNIQUES
L
In the following passage all the underlined words refer to
something mentioned before, or after, in the text. Read the
passage carefully and say what they refer to.
Human Work in Systems. A major objective ( цель) in
“man-machine” systems approach is that of developing systems
in which the combination of man and machine components
and methods is, as nearly as possible, optimum — in which
machines perform those functions which they can do best,
and men perform those which best utilize human talents. At
present, this objective needs to be viewed as unfinished
business, since we do not yet know very well how to go about
this “optimizing” process.
H.
Read the text, identify the topic and try to guess the meaning
of the one missing word (sing, or pi.) through contextual
clues (timed activity).
Industrial psychologists and human engineers have often
stressed the importance of physical / .../ on the job to employee
performance*. Noise, lighting, music, rest periods, ventilation,
humidity (влажность) - all these and others have been seen
as factors which could affect employees’ performance. The
Hawthorne plant studies originally focused on this area but
* employee performance - интенсивность труда служащих.
179
were unable to demonstrate any relation between physicdt
/.../ and output.
The subjective feelings of the employees and the way they
view the physical changes, rather than the changes themselves,
seem to influence motivation. Working /..,/ can, of course, affect
the employees’ comfort at work, but many are the examples of
employees working under bad working /.../ who have a high
level of morale ([~a:] боевой дух) and, likewise, employees
working under the best physical /.../ who have low morale.
This does not mean that management should ignore physical
working /.../ and make no effort to have them pleasant and
comfortable. It does mean that if employees recognize that a job is
unavoidably dirty or hot and the management has done all it can
to improve /.../, the poor /,,,/ will not necessarily cause low
morale of the employees. There may be some who will resign
(уволиться ) and look for jobs with better /.../. But others will
stay and be satisfied. However, safety /.../ do, usually, affect
directly employees’ attitudes and feelings.
In most working places today the physical /.../ are good:
temperature and ventilation are adequate; rest periods and
coffee breaks are provided; lighting is good, etc. Thus, the
presence of good physical /.../ in most plants and offices today
is taken for granted* and has little, if any, motivating force.
Say, whether you agree with the author of the text on all
the points.
TEXT
STUDY
III.
The text you are going to read is entitled “Human Functions
in Man-Machine Systems”. Can you guess what the text
might be about? What do you think are possible ideas? Give
your reasons.
*is taken for granted - само собой разумеется.
180
Consider the following: a) information processing
b) programming
c) designing the equipment.
Now read the text to see if you were right.
HUMAN FUNCTIONS IN
“MAN-MACHINE” SYSTEMS
In a very general sense, although work situations naturally
vary a great deal, human beings perform three basic types of
functions in the systems of which they are a part. These are:
(1) information-receiving; (2) information-processing (обра­
ботка информации) and decision-making; and (3) action.
Efforts to provide for the effective use of human beings in
systems then need to be directed toward facilitating these
functions by the proper design o f equipment and other
physical facilities, and by the development o f appropriate
methods and procedures of work.
The sensory organs of the body are the avenues through
which the individual receives information regarding the world
about him, including the information that is available to him,
in performing his job. We commonly think of there being five
main senses, namely, seeing, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
The first two are the senses used most frequently in work
situations.
In designing the equipment for ajob there are, in general,
two major considerations in determining what sense or senses
to use in the transmission o f information to the worker. In the
first place, in some circumstances the appropriate sense is,
for practical purposes, suggested by the nature of the source
of information or by the circumstances under which it is to
be received. We might cite the instance of an electric meter in
the home. To convey information about electric-power
consumption (потребление) in the home, one would certainly
not want a noise stimulus; thus, a meter provides a record that
can be seen visually. This example is clear-cut; but there are
many situations in which the appropriate sense avenue is not
nearly as straightforward. For example, although information
about the speed of the family car typically has been presented
visually, one could argue for the advantage o f having a sound
signal to indicate an appropriate maximum speed.
In the second place, where either o f two (or more) sense
avenues could be used in the transmission o f information, the
determination o f the method to be used may be based on
consideration of the relative demands already imposed on the
various sensory avenues. Where, for example, the visual sense
is already hardened, perhaps the auditory and tactual senses
might be brought into use to relieve the visual sense. This
would be particularly desirable in complex operations where a
great deal o f information has to be received and integrated,
such as the operation o f aircrafts.
The distinction between the process of receiving information
(which is, initially, a sensory process) and that o f processing
such inform ation and m aking decisions based on such
information is difficult to draw with precision. This is because
the simple sensory process o f receiving a stimulus through a
sense organ is inextricably interwinded with perception.
Perception, as a psychological function, involves the attachment
of meaning to that which is sensed. Let us take, for example,
two people looking at the pressure-gauge ( [ geid£] манометр)
of a steam-boiler, both of whom are equally able to “see” the
reading (показатель счетчика). One person knows nothing
about boilers, so to him the information is meaningless. The
other one, who knows about such things, sees that the
pressure is very near what he knows to be the danger point.
The “perceptions” o f these two people o f the same identical
instrument would be very different. The decision on the part
of the second person to reduce the pressure would be almost
an automatic one.
Given certain Informational input, the decision function
is that o f determining what action would bring about the most
182
appropriate output. The more “structured” or automatic the
relationship between a given input and the desired output,
the greater is the feasibility o f automating the process. Where
a specific predetermined action is to be taken for each possible
input, the process can be considered as being completely
“programmed” . While programming is typically thought o f as
being applied to automated or highly mechanized ['meknnaizd]
operation, one can in a sense consider personnel training as a
programming process - of training people to make decisions
that are appropriate to the information inputs.
In the design of systems, however, it would seem that
where relevant, the system should be so designed as to take
advantage o f man’s superior abilities to make complex decisions
and to adapt and improvise in the case o f new and varied
circumstances.
Notes:
a great deal
- a lot, very much
regarding
- about, in relation to
inextricably interwinded - запутанный, сложным образом
переплетенный
given - if we have - при наличии
in a sense
- в некотором смысле
in the case o f
- в случае, при, в
IV.
Look through the text. Single out the main problems raised.
V.
Read the text again and
say - what functions human beings perform in man-machine
systems;
- in what way it is possible to optimize m an’s
performance in man-machine systems;
- what the sensory organs of the body are compared to;
183
explain - why one shouldn’t want a sound signal in an electric
m eter in the hom e;
- why a noise stimulus indicating a maximum speed
lim it could be an advantage in the family car;
point out - what is im portant while designing th e equipm ent
for a job;
- th e difference between sensory and perceptual
processes m entioned in the text;
account fo r - the different “perceptions” o f th e two people
looking at th e sam e pressure-gauge;
say - u n d er what circum stances programming can be achieved;
- w hat m an’s superior abilities cannot be ignored
while designing m an-m achine systems.
W ords to be rem em bered:
adapt v. - адаптироваться, приспособляться
advantage n. - преимущество
anditory adj. - воспринимаемый на слух (звуковой)
burden v. - обременять,
consideration n. - соображение
convey v. - передавать
design v. - создавать, конструировать
efficiency и. -производительность, продуктивность, эффективность
facilities n. (pi.) - средства, устройства
feasibility п. -возможность, вероятность, выполнимость
impose v. - навязывать, предписывать
improvise v. - импровизировать, смастерить (наскоро, на месте)
indicate v. - указывать
input гь - ввод (информации)
integrate v. - объединять в единое целое
meter п, - счетчик
operation п. - операция; управленце
output п. - результат, информация иа выходе
personnel п. - персонал
precision п, - точность.
proper adj. - надлежащий, подходящий
source п. - источник
tactual а<Ц- тактильный
transmission п. - передача
184
V I.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
th e in fo rm a tio n regarding th e w orld ab o u t h im , the
inform ation th a t is available to him , to provide for the
effective use o f hum an beings in systems, th e systems o f
w hich th ey are a p a rt, th e p ro p er design o f e q u ip m en t
and o th e r physical facilities, to present /tra n sm it/c o n v e y /
process inform ation, to cite an instance, th is exam ple is
c lear-cu t, th e relative dem ands already im posed on the
various sensory avenues, th e distinction is difficult to
draw w ith precision.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
в самом общем смысле; отличаться больш им разно­
образием; а им енно; прежде всего (в первую , вторую
очередь); и сто ч н и к и н ф о р м ац и и ; и з пр акти чески х
со о б р аж ен и й ; п р ед став л ять/д ав ать и н ф о р м а ц и ю о
чем -либо; это было бы особенно желательно; доказы ­
вать (о сп ар и в ать ) п р еи м у щ ества; в о с п о л ь зо ваться
чем-либо (его преимущ ествами); реш ать како й метод
и сп ользовать (2); пр о ц есс п олучения и о б раб отки
и н ф о р м ац и и ; п р и н я ти е реш ен и й ; обучени е персо­
нала; сводить в единое целое / получать / обраба­
тывать / предъявлять / передавать инф орм ацию о чемлибо.
V II.
1. What senses are mentioned in the text ( n . a d j . ...).
2. Pick out nouns dealing with industrial setting.
3. Rearrange the verbs according to logical sequence:
program , determ ine, autom ate, argue, relieve, perform,
improvise, convey, integrate, design.
185
V III.
Fit the meaning and the word.
facilitation
4). Lay or place (duty, demands etc) on
sm b/sm th
efficiency
Ik, Make known to another person
reading
3)
. An act that is performed
4)
. Bring together and unify parts intoinput
a whole, produce units of higher order
feasibility
5). The ratio of effect produced to
energy expended
convey
6). Information taken at a given
moment
impose
7). Increased ease of performance, as
measured by decrease in time or
errors, increase o f output , or decrease
cfdEit
8)
. Likelyhood, that which can be done/
operation
put into practice
9)
. The energy entering a system from
integrate
without; that which acts on a receiver
IX.
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning.
a) personnel, input, provide, burden, proper, advantage.
b) deprive, im proper, relieve, drawback, disadvantage,
equipm ent, o u tp u t
2. Match the words with a similar meaning.
a) c o m m o n ly , p ro p e r, p e rfo rm , a v e n u e , c o n v ey ,
distinction, precise, feasible.
b) way, differentiation, transmit, com m unicate, carry,
accurate, possible, likely, carry out, usually, normally,
suitable, fitting.
186
X.
1. Form verbs from these nouns by means of conversion and
translate both
burden, design, sound, program.
2. Form nouns adding suffixes - tion\ -ion\ -ation or -m ent
to adjectives: precise, distinct;
to verbs: determine, indicate, adapt, automate, improvise, re­
late, integrate, transmit, consider, operate, motivate,
ventilate, satisfy; equip, argue, attach, manage.
3. Fill in the table of derivatives
verb
facilitate
noun
adjective
i
2.
3.
initiate
1.
—
2.
effect
inform
consume
relief
___
mean
XI.
Check the word which doesn’t belong.
1. record
reading
meter
2. design
argue
improvise
5. consumption
equipment
personnel
6. automate
improvise
program
3. relieve
believe
receive
4. auditory
tactual
sound
187
X II.
L Translate the last three paragraphs of the text.
2. “ However” (conj.) in the text means “ nevertheless”, “but
yet”. Pay special attention to the translation o f “however,
whoever, whenever, wherever” in the sentences below:
D on’t change your plans whatever happens. You must
find him wherever he is. However you look at it the answer
always comes out the same. Whatever he says is true. However
busy Harry is, he always visits his m other at least once a week.
Whoever says it is wrong.However good the equipm ent may
be without a human being able to operate it it is useless.
GRAMMAR :
M O D A LS
X III.
Pick out the sentences with modal verbs from the text
“HUM AN FUNCTIONS...” and translate them.
The notes below will help you.
XIV.
Read the notes and translate the examples given.
Modal verbs CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, MUST, WILL,
WOULD, SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO and NEEDN’T are
used when we say that
we expect things to happen; or that events are possible
/im possible/; necessary, or improbable; or when we say
that things did not happen; or that we are not sure whether
they happened.
e.g. 1 can’t swim (ability).
She could be in London or Paris or Tokyo — nobody
knows
(possibility).
\ may come tomorrow if I have time (possibility).
1 .8 8
You m ight have told me Frances was ill {reproach).
She would sit for hours saying nothing (past habits).
Her car m ay have broken down (possibility).
He can’t be visiting his friend now. I ’ve just seen hifn
(.logical conclusion).
People should‘drive more carefully (recommendation).
We ought to go and see Mary tomorrow, but I don’t
think we will (m oral obligation).
I think they should have consulted a doctor earlier
(criticism ).
All modal verbs except SHALL (in some o f their meanings)
can be used together with Perfect Infinitives to talk about the
past. This structure has a special meaning: it is used for specu­
lating (thinking about what possibly happened) or imagining
(thinking about how things could have been different).
e.g. She’s two hours late — what can have happened?
(possibility).
You could have told me you were coming (reproach).
You were crazy to ski down there - you m ight have
killed
youself (possibility).
George is soaking wet. He m ust have been walking in
the rain (certainty).
The potatoes would have been better with a bit more
salt (belief).
You needn’t have brought cheese - we’ve got plenty
(lack o f necessity).
The plant is dead. Maybe I should have given it more
water (probability).
XV.
1. Compare the meaning of Simple and Perfect Infinitives
used with modal verbs
MUST, and CANT to suggest what seems to be the most likely
explanation (certainty, logical conclusion).
189
WILL and WOULD to express b e lie f (or conjecture, guess).
e.g,. A: He must be at least 60.
B: Oh, no! He can’t be as old as that.
(It must have been a great shock to him).
A: I met a charming girl at your party last night.
B: Ah, yes! That will/would have been my cousin Betty.
2. Complete the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
. His girlfriend writes to him every day. She m u st...
. I don’t seem to have my key with me. I must have ...
. You won’t know my name, of course, but I was a friend
of your father’s. - Why! Father often told me about you.
You would ...
. He has no idea what the book is about. He can’t have ...
. No one thought he would be offered the job, but he was.
The person who interviewed him must have ...
. I t’s half past eight. T hat ... the postman at the door
(I should think).
. He talks about going to the moon next week. He m u st...
. He wears glasses all the time. His eyesight can’t ...
. You ... (by any chance) my gloves anywhere, I suppose?
. He said he would ring, but he hasn’t. He must have ...
XIV.
Choose the appropriate modal verb while reading the text.
FACILITATING DECISION-MAKING
In the case of certain types of decision to be made |n the
operation o f man-machine systems, the ready availability of rele­
vant information (may, can) have a significant effect upon the
adequacy and finality of the resulting decisions. Appropriate
information is a requirement for many decisions. In the design of
man-machine systems an analysis preferably (should, would)
be made of the decisions that men would be expected to have to
Ш
make in actual operation of the S fS tfffi. Knowing what decisions
(are, ought) to be made, it is then necessary to determine what
kind(s) o f information (would, could) be required in making
such decisions. Provisions (should, might) then be made for
providing for such information through the use of appropriate
information displays. Information (shall, should) be provided in
such a way that Ц is most effective in facilitating the decision­
making process. While much remains to be learned about this,
an example (may, must) suggest the type of analysis that (must,
can) contribute answers to this question.
A study was carried out by Forbes for purposes o f studying
three auditory signals used in flying. We (will, shall) not dis­
cuss the procedures of the experiment, or the specific results,
■but rather we (may, will) simply summarize the implications.
It was found that a combination three-in-one sound signal
was better than three separate signals. The combination signal
(would, should) be varied in three different ways (specifically
in steadiness, frequency, and modulation) to provide infor­
mation o f three different types.
The implications of this type of research strongly suggest
that the appropriate integration of information for workers
(can, needn’t) facilitate the decision-making process.
XVII.
1. Respond to statements by giving advice using SHOULD or
OUGHT TO with a suitable infinitive form.
NOTE: if should/ought to are used with the Perfect Infini­
tive the sentences always imply that the opposite
was in fact true.
e.g. A:
B:
A:
B:
He failed at his exam.
He should have worked harder. /H e ought to try again.
I’ve got a toothache.
You ought to go to the dentist’s.
191
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
. Peter had an accident with his car last weekend.
. John is terribly overweight!
. Our train leaves in ten minutes.
. You are always late for work!
. Mary got terribly sunburnt yesterday.
. Tom is always complaining about being underpaid.
. We’re spending our holidays in Spain next summer.
. Let’s face it. We’re hopelessly lost!
2. Make use of the previous Units to (1) give criticism, (2)
make recommendations, or (3) express regret using COULD
or SHOULD + Perfect Infinitive (groupwork).
e.g. The report is inaccurate, contains insufficient evidence*
the subject is rather doubtful... I think ...
should
could
have mentioned...
the most important
stressed ...
factors
emphasized ... your own approach
outlined ...
his to ...
expressed ...
own idea o f ...
- Right you are. I see now that I could/should have ...
XVIII.
There was an accident on the road, a car turned upside
down.
What do you think MUST/MAY/MIGHT have caused
the accident?
Express probability giving this or that degree of certainty/
likelihood (possible reasons of the accident; the time of the
day, the weather, the road, the state o f the driver,
circumstances).
192
XIX.
Fill in the tables of modal verbs
Meaning
in relation to
the subject
ability
permission
obligation
absence of oblig.
characteristic
behavior
recommendation
MODALS (or their equivalents)
Simple Infinitive
Present "Real"
Past
could/was
able to
was allowed
had to/was
go immediately
would
"Unreal" Past*
Perfect Infinitive
criticism,
advice
regret
have gone
yesterday
reproach
* Contrary to real facts.
B.,________ ______
Meaning MODALS Simple
(degree
Infinitive refers
the action
of
to Present
likelihood)
certainty
logical
conclusion
be there already
possibility
Perfect
Infinitive refers
the action to
"Real” Past*
have been there
yesterday
belief
probability
* in only a limited number of contexts expresses something co n tra ry
to real facts.
13 Зак. 3300
193
READING
AND
DISCUSSION
XX.
1. Identify the topic of the text below and “edit” the third
paragraph.
In considering various possible sensory avenues for use in
information transmission, one might wonder about possible
differences in reaction'time to various stimuli. It is relevant to
note that the differences in reaction time for hearing, touch,
and sight are relatively negligible; these are the senses that are
used most extensively in man-machine systems. It should be
noted however, that reaction times are influenced by numerous
other factors, such as the specific nature of the stimulus, the
intensity and duration o f the stimulus; and the number and
type of competing stimuli as well as by the age and sex of the
individual.
Although the need for fast and accurate reaction time is
now becoming less important due to the use of electronic
devices for sensing situations and controlling actions, there
are still many situations where reaction time is involved and
where knowledge concerning it is valuable. A number of
generalizations concerning reaction time have been established
(Teichner, 1954).
Among the most important of these are the following:
1)
. When two sense organs are stimulated simultaneously
reaction time is (faster, slower) than when only one is
stimulated. On the other hand, consecutive ([knn'sekjutiv]
последовательная) stimulation of different sense organs
produces (slower, faster) reaction times than repeated stimu­
lation of the same organ.
2)
. In the case of visual and thermal reaction times, the
greater the number o f receptors stimulated, the (faster,
slower) the reaction time will be, up to a certain point.
194
3)
. Under good illumination, visual reaction time becomes
(longer, shorter) as the distance of the stimulus from the eye
decreases.
4)
. Reaction time (increases, decreases) with age until the
individual is about thirty, after which it gradually (increases,
decreases).
5)
. In general (women, men) have faster reaction times
than (women, men).
-Many specific factors influence speed of reaction in a given
situation. Among these are the sense organs involved, the
strength of motivation to respond, the amount o f practice
in responding, and the complexity of the reaction.
2. Divide the text into logical parts and snm it up.
XXI.
I. Read the development of ideas presented in ex. XX and the
text “Human Functions”.
The term “visual display” applies to any device that is used
to present information visually to human beings. Examples
include dials of different size and shape, signal lights and
signs of different colours. A great deal o f the research in human
factor engineering has so far been directed toward the design
of visual displays that convey the information most adequately.
In some circumstances, though, auditory signals are more
satisfactory for transmitting information in man-machine sys­
tems. Then sounds of different frequency, intensity, and dura­
tion are used.
A general study of guidelines for using auditory versus
visual presentation is given below.
195
Justify the choice of presentation in each case
Use auditory presentation if:
The message is simple.
The message is short.
Use visual presentation if:
The message is complex.
The message is long.
The message will not be
referred to later.
The message deals with
events in time.
The message calls for
immediate action.
The visual system of the
person is overburdened.
The message will be
referred to later.
The message deals with
events in space.
The message does not call
for immediate action.
The auditory system of the
person is overburdened.
The receiving location is too
bright or dark - adaptation
integrity is necessary.
The person’s job requires
him to move about
continually.______________
The receiving location
is too noisy.
The person’s job allows
him to remain in one
position._______________
2. What are the basic criteria behind each display?
(Generalize).
XXII.
I. Read the two texts below. Say what is new in text (b)
when compared with text (a).
(a) A PERFORMANCE-RATING CASE STUDY.
The perform ance-rating program o f the Acme Steel
Company, which has been in operation for several years,
includes ten factors. The factors are:
1) . Accuracy of work.
2) . Quantity of work.
3) . Use of working time.
196
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
. Ability to work with others.
. Ability to learn.
. Safety.
. Initiative and acceptance of responsibility.
. Conduct on the job.
.Care and use of equipment, tools, material, power.
. Attendance and punctuality.
Each man is rated independently by one or two supervisors
who are familiar with the man’s work. The average corrected
ratings by the two or more raters for each man are then
determined. The men on a given job or a group o f jobs are
then listed in order of their corrected average rating. The men
who are high on this list are considered to fit well for the job.
The man in the group who has the highest ratings is promoted
(продвигать no службе).
(b) P E R F O R M A N C E EVALUATION
Granted the employer knows how to select, place, and
train the new worker, he still needs to evaluate his effectiveness.
If a man is to be promoted, transferred, or discharged
(увольнять), management must have reliable information
upon which to make its conclusions. In the absence of reliable
data, rumour (сплетня) or prejudice (предвзятое мнение)
are expensive second choices*. Periodic evaluation of each man’s
work performance is one way of avoiding overall inefficiency,
discontent and excessive costs. A frequent m ethod for
performance evaluation is to have the immediate supervisor
who has personal knowledge o f the workers’ daily performance
prepare a rating form. This is very much like the forms utilized
for personality assessment, except that work not personality
characteristics is identified and rated.
* second choice - альтернатива
197
Statistical analysis of many different performance evalua­
tion procedures has revealed that most supervisors basically
evaluate three aspects Ш behaviour on the job: quality of
work, quantity of work, and what is (vaguely) called
“compassion” . This last trait reflects the personal qualities of
the man being rated and his potential for promotion. Other
traits listed on performance evaluation form tend to be biassed
by (оказываться под влиянием) the judgements about these
three basic traits.
To simplify workers’ evaluation, some organizations have
the worker rated simply as “satisfactory”, “outstanding”, or
“unsatisfactory’*; The 'majority of workers receive the first
category, and no further data are needed. When an employee
is described as outstanding (implying that he is entitled to a
rise) or unsatisfactory (implying that he should be discharged)
specific justification and support is requested to demonstrate
that the judgement is not an arbitrary (произвольный;
случайный) one but is based upon reliable evidence.
2. What other factors if any would you include in the
performance-rating program?
XXIII.
1). Read the text below and find out what information dif­
ferent persons (e.g. someone who is looking for a job,
a corporation executive, an industrial or organizational
psychologist) might draw from it (groupwork).
The effective utilization o f people in organized human
effort has always been a pressing problem. The pharaoh
building a pyramid faced problems fundamentally similar to
those faced by the corporation executive or university
president o f today. Each must figure out (1) how to organize
work and allocate it to workers; (2) how to recruit, train
and effectively manage the people available to do the work;
198
(3) how to create work conditions and reward and punish­
ment systems which will enable the workers to maintain
high effectiveness and sufficient morale to remain effective
over long periods of time; (4) how to adjust their organization
to changing environmental conditions and technological inno­
vations; and (5) how to cope with competition or harassment
(преследование) from other organizations or groups within
their own organization.
Psychologists became interested in such questions only as
their theories and methods enabled them to think constructively
about them and to test their thinking with empirical research.
They started with questions which deal with the assessment
and selection of individual workers and ignored those involving
the organization as a whole.
With this more scientific and systematic approach, psycho­
logists soon found themselves moving closer to organizational
problems in a growing attempt to put order into the process of
designing and organizing the work itself. Industrial psycholo­
gists found themselves working closely with engineers to analyze
the basic characteristics of work in order to give each individual
worker a job which maximized (a) his human capabilities and
limits, (b) coordination and team-work among employees,
and (c) overall efficiency. Thus “time-and-motion” studies
were carried out to determine how competent workers actually
perform a given job; “job analyses” were carried out to
standardize the work and to enable managers to better select
and train workers; physical surroundings, noise levels, fatigue
(усталость), monotony and other accompaniments of work
were studied to determine their effect on the quantity and
quality of work.
But it was in the study of worker motivation, incentive
(сти м улирование) system s, personnel policies, and
intergroup relations that the organization as a total system
first began to come into focus. Psychologists recognized that
for an individual member, whether worker or manager, an
199
organization as a whole exists as a psychological entity
(реальность) to which he reacts. The quality of his work is
related to his image of the organization as a whole, not just to
the immediate characteristics of his work or his immediate
monetary incentives. Furthermore, it was recognized that the
individual does not stand alone in relation to the organization
but is integrated into various groupings which themselves have
patterns of cooperative, competitive, or indifferent relations
to one another. They generate their own norms of what is
right and proper behaviour, and such norms extend to the
amount and type of work to be performed.
In other words, the deeper psychologists went into the
behaviour o f individuals, within organizations, the more
they discovered that the organization is a complex social
system which must be studied as a total system if individual
behaviour within it is to be truly understood. It was this
discovery which created organizational psychology as a
discipline in its own right.
The difference between the industrial psychologist of the
1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, and the organizational psychologist
of today is thus twofold: (1) Traditional questions such as
those of recruitment, testing selection, training, job analysis,
incentives, work conditions, and so on - are treated by organiza­
tional psychologists as being interrelated and intimately tied to
the social system of the organization as a whole. (2) The or­
ganizational psychologist has begun to concern himself with a
new series of questions which derive from the recognition of
the system characteristics of organizations. These questions
deal not so much with the behaviour of individuals as with
the behaviour of groups, subsystems, and even the total
organization in response to internal and external stimuli. The
traditional industrial psychologist either would not have
considered questions such as these or he could not have dealt
with them scientifically because he lacked the necessary
theoretical and research tools.
200
2. Do you agree with the author on all ponts?
3. Say if anything is missing in his arguments.
Use the following: He omitted ... He didn’t mention/stress
the role o f ...
XXIV.
Read the text and make up a table summarizing possible
training programmes.
Give a 1 min. summary of the text.
To help a new worker become a productive member of
an industrial organization a systematic training programme
is necessary. This programme will include orientation training
to introduce the worker to his mates and to help him learn
how he fits into the overall organization. If the type o f work
is one which the worker has never performed before, a
very extensive training programme may be required in which
the trainee is given intensive instruction in and practice of
the skills and activities. In this way, errors which could be
expensive or dangerous are avoided. It has been found
repeatedly in industry that pretraining is the cheapest method
for bringing new workers up to maximum levels o f skill in
the minimum time. Some training programmes are a few
hours’ duration; others, a few days or weeks; some go on
for years. These programmes may incorporate classroom
teaching and on-the-job training where the student “earns
while he learps” .
XXV.
1. Read and state your criticism of the author’s argu­
ments or conclusions. Express your own opinion on the
matter.
201
MOTIVATION
In human work, as well as in other aspects of life, the
motivation of people is, of course, central to any form of
behaviour. While human motivation is characterized by basic
“needs”, it is specifically directed either toward achieving some
desirable, positive goals, or toward avoiding other undesirable,
negative consequences. Thus, in the work setting the question
arises as to what variables are perceived by the worker as
desirable goals to achieve or undesirable conditions to avoid.
The motivation to work has been studied by Herzberg and
his co-workers. This study consisted of an intensive analysis of
the experienced feelings of two hundred engineers and
accountants (бухгалтер) in nine different companies. During
structured interviews they were asked to describe a few previ­
ous job experiences in which they felt “exceptionally good”
or “exceptionally bad” about their jobs.
As a result of a detailed analysis of the interview data,
Herzberg came to the conclusion that categories associated
with high job-attitudes are indirectly or directly connected
with jo b activities as such. These categories are: achievement,
recognition, the work itself, responsibilities, and advancement.
On the other hand, the factor categories associated with low
job-attitude situations are primarily connected with the jobcontext rather than with the job activities; the more important
of these are company policy and administration, technical
supervision, interpersonal relations, and working conditions.
According to Herzberg, these results indicate that the fac­
tors that lead to positive job attitudes do so primarily because
they satisfy the individual’s need for self-actualization in his
work. The conditions that surround the job cannot give him
this basic satisfaction, although (when these conditions are
satisfactory) they can meet the needs o f the individual to
avoid unpleasant situation. Thus, one group of factors (those
connected with the job itself) serve the need to develop in
202
one’s occupation as a source of personal growth. The second
group (those connected with the job conditions) are an
essential base to the first. While they do not bring about positive
satisfaction, they can prevent dissatisfaction.
2. Speak about your motivation in learning English; compare
it with
a) your fellow-students ’ motivation ;
b) th e m o tiva tio n o f stu d e n ts fro m o th e r U niversity
departments (Work in pairs ).
3). Speak about your motivation in research activities.
XXVI.
1. Read the text and give any examples known to you in
which psychology has been applied in any of the following
fields: industry, medicine, education, crime.
The existence of so many varied conceptions of the nature
o f psychology is no doubt related to the many aspects
of psychological work. The psychiatrist dealing with “mental”
breakdown, the educator moulding human development,
the vocational counsellor advising on the choice of jobs,
the social scientist studying the prevention of crime, the
personnel manager smoothing human relations in industry,
the industrial psychologist streamlining industrial processes
to suit the nature of human capacities: all these are concer­
ned with psychology. Human behaviour is complex and
varied, and the science which studies it must have many
aspects.
2. It may be useful for us to consider samples of psycho­
logical work in various areas. Identify the problems and
answer the questions to the cases below (groupwork).
203
CASE I.
The manager of a large office building had received many
complaints about the lift service in the building. He engaged a
group of engineers to study the situation and make recommen­
dations for improvement. The engineers suggested two alternati­
ve solutions: adding more lifts of the same type or replacing
the existing lifts by faster ones. The manager decided that
both alternative solutions were too expensive. So the firm’s
psychologist offered to study the problem. He noticed that
many people arrived at their offices feeling angry and impatient.
The reason they gave was the length of time they had to wait
for the lift. However, the psychologist was impressed by the
fact that they had only had to wait a relatively short time. It
occured to him that the reason for their annoyance (раздра­
жение) was that they had to stand by the lifts inactive. So he
suggested a simple, inexpensive solution to the manager. This
was adopted and complaints stopped immediately. The solu­
tion was to place a large mirror next to the lifts.
Was it right to attempt to solve the problem in engineering
term s f
W hy/why not ?
CASE Щ
A large London catering (общественное питание) firm
became concerned about the excessive number of breakages
by its employees. It therefore decided to impose a penalty to
reduce carelessness. Strange to say, the system of fines (штраф)
led to an increase in breakages. The management decided that
the problem was more complex than they had thought, so
they called in a psychologist to investigate and recommend
appropriate remedies. The psychologist first posed the question
as to when breakages occured. He kept a record of the breakages
occuring during half-hour periods over a number of days,
and it soon became evident that most accidents occurred during
the rush (часы пик) periods when the girls were worried by
204
their inability to cope with the number of orders. It was now
obvious why the system of fines had only made matters worse.
They added to the anxiety of the already over-strained girls
and simply made them more nervous.
Do you approve o f the psychologist '5 strategy ?
W hy/why not?
What could be the next step ?
CASE Ш
As you know, a great deal of work has been done on the
psychology of learning. Nevertheless, the methods employed
by the majority of university and college students are notable
for their inefficiency. If you have to learn a skill or commit
something to memory, the question arises as to whether you
should complete the job in one sitting, or whether it is better
to spread the learning over a number of periods. A number of
experiments have been carried out to decide this matter and,
although results vary according to specific circumstances, the
general trend is quite definite. In one of the investigations,
two similar groups of subjects were set to memorize material.
The first group read through the material sixteen times in
one day. The other group also read through the material
sixteen times, but spread the readings over sixteen days at
the rate of one per day, Each group was tested a fortnight (14
days) after completion of the learning to see how much had
been retained. The result showed a startling difference. The first
group remembered 9% of the material while the second group
remembered 79% despite the fact that there was so much
opportunity to forget during the 16-day period o f learning.
Can you suggest how to p la n a n d u n d erta k e a sc ie n ­
tific in v e s tig a tio n d e sig n e d to im p ro v e s tu d e n ts stu d y
m ethods ?
3. Cases I and И depended for their solution mainly upon
accurate measurement; Case 111 depended upon designing an
205
adequate experimental set-up. In your own local surroundings,
can you think of any simple problem which could be solved by
one, or both of these methods?
Describe clearly one o f these real-life problems, and in­
dicate how you would proceed to tackle it.
LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
XXVII.
1. Read and say which of the alternatives gives the right
information about the work of an industrial psychologist.
2. Listen to the text to check yourself.
UNIT IX
READING TECHNIQUES
I.
Find sentences with “omitted” link-words and translate them.
Why do people need contact with others? If all your biolo­
gical needs were satisfied in a perfectly programmed physical
environment in which you were constantly alone, what would
you miss?
You know by experience life alone can get pretty boring
(надоесть). If you have ever spent a weekend in an empty
house, you know life alone can be very quiet. With no one to
talk to you will eventually find yourself longing (тосковать)
for someone you can interact with.
No matter how interesting a book or a television show is, it
can never replace the stimulation of social interaction.
When you are all alone, the stimulation of the social ga­
mes people play is missing. What fun is there in putting on a
particularly attractive outfit (одежда) if there is no one to
admire (восхищаться) you? Mastering (справиться) a parti­
cularly difficult intellectual task will not be as much fun either.
The joy you feel when you find that another person is plea­
sed with your appearance or performance is real and rewar­
ding.
Alone, you are also cut off from an important source of
information when making judgement about complicated events.
Much of the information people are exposed (предъявлять­
ся) to in the mass media is highly complicated and incon­
sistent.
207
и.
Read the text omitting link-words where possible.
W H E N D O P E O P L E A F FIL IA T E ?
Whether the need to be with other people is learned or
innate it is clear that affiliation is a very strong social motive
which many people share.
Under what circumstances do people affiliate? Many events
with which we meet in everyday life support the saying that
misery (несчастье) loves company. If, for instance, you were
having problems with someone whom you loved you might
seek out someone with whom you could discuss your problems.
Just talking might reduce your worrying (беспокойство).
News o f some tragic situation on a national level can also
stimulate an affiliation need. O f one hundred students polled
(опрошенный) 60% indicated that they had wished to be
with others during the electric power failure o f 1965 that
affected almost the entire eastern area o f the United States.
Subjects who had been involved in a severe ([si'via] силь­
ный) rainstorm in which 22 inches of rain fell within a 24hour period were given a questionnaire designed to measure
their affiliative tendencies during this period. Those who found
themselves in extremely serious situations reported a signifi­
cantly higher affiliative tendency - saying that they have “tried
to remain in the company o f others constantly”.
Assuming that there is arelationship between stress and affi­
liation raises a whole series of questions about why it exists. Why
do people want to be with others when they are under stress? Is
it to find reassurance from each other? To distract (отвлечь)
each other? To compare the feelings which they experience?
We shall see that there are permanent consistent differen­
ces between people in the extent to which they wish to affili­
ate. Although affiliation may be more likely to occur in some
situations than in others, some people may be more or less
likely to affiliate in a wide variety of situations.
208
TEXT STUDY
III.
Before reading the text on affiliation predict whether the
following statements are true or false:
a) . The need for social contact is innate.
b) . The need for affiliation can occur only during a veiy
limited period of life.
c) . The development of affection between the infant and
the mother is completely determined by the frequency
of satisfaction o f primary needs.
d) . The development of a strong attachment between the
infant and the person who cares (заботиться) for him
is crucial to normal social development.
Now read the text and see whether you were right.
TEXT
How do people acquire their need for social contact?
Does it come from mother-child contact? Most writers in
this area would agree that human infants form strong and
persistent ties to their mother or to some other person who
cares for them. From this intimate relationship the child’s
love for his mother and for other people is formed.
But how does the relationship develop? And how does it
come to generalize beyond the original person involved?
Clearly, people need more than their mothers if their needs
for social contact are to be met. Undeniable (неоспоримый)
as the close mother-child relationship is, there is considerable
disagreement as to how it comes about and how it develops
into a “social response” of wanting to associate with other
people. Three very different theories have been given.
Since the original work with imprinting it has been found
that imprinting can occur only during a limited period of life
(Hess, 1959). It has been suggested that human infants may
14 3ax 3300
209
form their social attachment by an imprinting-like process, in
which the basic social responses of the infant-sucking (сосание),
clinging (прижимание), and smiling-are elicited by the mo­
ther (stimulus). Like the mother goose with the goslings in a
classic experiment (Lorenz, 1935) the mere (простой) presence
of the human mother at a critical time in the infant’s life even
without any tangible (ощутимый) rewards such as warmth
or nourishment ([‘nArijment] питание) - may result in the
formation of an attachment between the infant and his mother.
Interesting as this imprinting theory is, experimental veri­
fication with humans is obviously unattainable for ethical
reasons. Nevertheless, further testing of the imprinting theory
with higher animals, such as chimpanzees [t$impan'zi:z],
is possible, and could provide further indirect evidence for
the possible existence of this phenomenon in human beings.
The learning theory holds that the infant becomes attached
to the mother because her face and form have been associated
with the alleviation of certain primary drive states, primarily
hunger and thirst. Every time a baby is fed (кормить) by his
m other, he learns to associate h er w ith the warm,;
co m fo rta b le feelings th a t com e from th e re lie f
(удовлетворение) o f his hunger. In short, the literally
millions of times a baby is cared for by his mother or others
could be thought of as times when human beings are associated
with pleasant situations. Gradually, through this process of
conditioning, the child learns to “love” his mother, and this
love generalizes to other people. Affection, or the need for
others, becomes - as the behaviorists would describe it - a
“learned drive” (Dollard and Miller, 1950). Just as a pet kitten
learns to “love” its human mother because she feeds him,
so does the human infant learns to love his mother because
she is constantly associated with pleasant experiences.
If you have had a course in introductory psychology, you
do not need to be reminded of the power of the classical
conditioning in learning. Pavlov’s famous dog, which salivated
2 1 0
(выделять слюну) when a bell that had been associated with
food was tting, has made this process famous.
Conditioning is a pervasive (проникающий всюду) and
important learning process and offers a sound explanation of
the development o f the attachment between mother and child.
Another equally plausible i l W a a B : правдоподобный)
theory is that certain aspects of the mother, such as her
warmth and softness, might instinctively set off certain social
responses in the human infant, such as smiling, clinging,
and sucking. The mother’s softness or warmth - not the
frequency of her association with any pleasant stimulus would be responsible for the development of the infant’s
attachment to her.
These two theories are clearly inconsistent. Whereas the
learning theory holds that the development of affection is
completely determined by the frequency of pairing primary
reinforcements such as food with mother, the instinctivecom ponent theory holds that the d e v elo p m en t'o f an
attachment is determined by the pairing o f certain aspects of
the mother - some of which are not yet known - with the
infant’s social responses. Certain aspects of the mother, such
as intimate physical contact, may instinctively arouse affection
responses in the infant.
Which of these two theories offers the better explanation?
What is most important in the development of the motherchild attachm ent: the association o f the prim ary drive
reduction with the mother or cues {[kju:J сигнал), such
as physical contact, that instinctively set off an attachment
response? These theories have not been tested directly at the
human level. Although designing such a study might be simple
enough, there are obviously ethical problems involved in
conducting such research with human beings.
To test whether food or contact comfort is more important
in the development of affection, one investigator has run a
series of experiments using infant macaque f nvj'karkl monkeys
211
as subjects (Harlow, 1958; 1959; Harlow and Harlow, 1962).
These animals are believed to exhibit strong similarities to
humans in their basic responses, such as nursing, clinging,
and visual and auditory M M exploration.
In an early study two artificial, surrogate “mothers” were
c o n s tru c te d . O ne m o th e r was b u ilt o f w ire m esh
(проволочная сетка). A second mother, designed to resemble
the first in size and shape, was made of terry cloth (плюш)
so that she could provide contact comfort. In one experiment
a cloth m other did not dispense milk and a wire mother did.
By observing which of the two mothers the infant monkeys
spent the most time with, that is, preferred, Harlow felt he
could gain some insight into the relative validity of the learning
and the instinctive-component theories.
During the 165-day period that the infant monkeys spent
with both mothers, a distinct preference was shown for the
cloth m other. By the end of the tim e period, the baby
monkeys were spending an average of sixteen hours per day
on the cloth mother as compared to an average of only one
and a half hours on the wire mother. Clearly the need for
contact comfort produced more of an affiliation response
than the need for hunger reduction.
The Harlow experiments, of course, do not settle the issue
of how social attachment is learned in human beings. Whether
these results show the workings of the imprinting-like process
in the forming o f attachments in monkeys or a drive for contact
comfort that is stronger than the drive for food is, of course,
debatable. Nevertheless the results do emphasize the importance
of the aspects of the mother, other than her association with
food, in eliciting an attachment relationship.
Although these three explanations emphasize different
aspects o f the learning process, it is possible that in real life
all three aspects com bine to produce th e very strong
attachment that usually exists between infants and those who
care for them.
212
Regardless of how the attachment relationship between
the person o r persons who care for him is form ed, its
formation is crucial to normal social development. A number
of studies consistently show that social deprivation causes severe
disturbances.
Evidently, social interaction is necessary for normal de­
velopment - even in areas that do not seem to be socially
determined, such as paying attention to the environment.
Further in the formation of the infant’s attachm ent to the
person who takes care o f him, we see the core relationship
from which all other social relationships and social learning
derives.
Notes:
Undeniable as the close mother-child relationship is
Interesting as this, imprinting theory is ...
- grammatical structure expressing concession (уступка)
- как бы ни, насколько бы ни
be responsible for - (зд. ) быть причиной.
IV.
Read the text again and
single out the main problems raised and title the text.
V.
Look through the text and
point out what is important for imprinting to occur;
why the validity of the two theories was tested
on infant macaque monkeys;
specify the essence of each theory in question;
describe the Harlow experiment;
report the results of the Harlow experiment;
prove the importance of early attachment relationship for
individual’s social development.
213
Words to be rem em bered:
affiliation n, - афф или аци я, потреб 11ость в ш и а л ь н ых контактах
artificial adj.~ искусственный
acquire у. - приобретать
alleviation ft: - облегчение, удовлетворение
conductЩ - проводить
crucial adj, - решающий
deprivation n. - депривация, лишение
derive v.-.^.происходить
elicit v. - вызывать, устанавливать
extinction n. - угасание, затухание
gradually adv. - постепенно
original adj.- первый, первоначальный
persistent adj. -устойчивый, настойчивый
remind v. - напоминать
resistant adj. - сопротивляющийся
reward n. - подкрепление
settle v. - (раз)решать, урегулировать
verification n. - проверка, подтверждение
isolate v. - изолировать
VI.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
imprinting-like process; to offer a sound explanation; there
are ethical problems involved in conducting such research;
to run a series of experiments; to show a distinct preference
for; aspects of the mother other than her association with
food; regardless of how the attachment is formed.
2. Find English equivalents in the text:
удовлетворить потребность в социальных контактах;
было установлено, что; предполагали, что; вызвать от­
вет, реакцию (4 слова); приводить к образованию
привязанности; по этическим причинам; предоставить
косвенное доказательство возможного существования;
у людей, у детей, у обезьян; теория научения утверж­
дает, что; удовлетворение (2 слова) первичных потреб­
ности ых состояний; короче говоря; на уровне челове­
214
ка; в качестве испытуемых; проявлять большое сход­
ство с человеком; напоминать по размерам; напоминать
по форме; за 165 дней; оказывать предпочтение чемулибо; в среднем 16 часов в день; по сравнению Щ ре­
шить проблему; независимо от того как.
VII.
Write out words from the text according to the following
criteria:
a) psychological terms;
b) words expressing assessment.
V III.
Fit the meaning and the word:
a). 1). Unhealthy fear of
2) . A form of learning which fixes the
distinctive signs of the objects of some
innate behavioral actions of the parents
3) . Subjective assessment of some
phenomenon by a preset scale
4) . A need for social contact
5) . Unconditioned stimulus causing
reaction which on combining with
an indifferent stimulus develops a
classical conditioned reflex
affiliation
reinforcement
b). 1). to end the existence of
2). to keep apart from others
despite opposition
3) to continue
.
to remember
4) to cause
.
5) to test. the accuracy of
6) to cause
. to come out
to
make
7)
. an agreement about
8) to prevent
.
from having or enjoying
to settle
to deprive
to elicit
to persist
to isolate
to extinguish
to remind
to verify
imprinting
phobia
rating
215
IX .
1. Match the words with the opposite meaning:
a) artificial, deprive, consistent, gradually, crucial,
extinction, severe.
b) contradictory, provide, at once, natural, unimportant,
mild, survival.
2. Match the words with a similar meaning:
a) conduct, reward, acquire, desire, disturbance, crucial,
alleviate, issue, persistent, elicit, original, derive.
b) disorder, problem, perform, relieve, lasting, originate,
critical, earliest, reinforcement, cause, wish, learn.
X.
1. Divide the following words into two lists: nouns and
adjectives. Use a dictionary.
artificial, maternal, approval, external, original, personal,
arrival, identical, denial, causal, conditional, deprival,
environmental, social, removal, arousal.
2. Fill in the table of derivatives.
verb
noun
adjective
grade
alleviate
settlement
isolate
resistence
reinforce
persistent
expose
acquisition
216
X I.
Check the word which doesn’t belong:
1. reward
elicit
acquire
derive
2. inconsistent
insecure
intimate
invalid
5. affiliate
6. persistent
associate
resistant
settle
assistant
communicate artificial
3.
separate
isolate
adequate
substantiate
4.verify
conduct
test
control
7. disturbance 8. imprinting
arousal
provision
excitation
conditioning
deprivation
awakening
XII.
Translate the passages from the text marked by the vertical
lines.
G R A M M A R : T H E SU PPO SITIO N AL M O O D
X III.
Pick out sentences with “SHOULD” and translate them.
The notes below will help you.
THE SCHACHTER EXPERIMENT
Under what circumstances do people want to be with
others? Schachter has noted that distress (расстройство), or
anxiety, is a fairly common reaction to isolation. If this
hypothesis is correct, increasing the level of stress (or distress)
that is experienced might result in an increase in the desire to
affiliate.
Schachter designed a series of experiments testing the ef­
fects of increasing the level of stress on the frequency of af­
filiation. The subjects were female students in introductory
psychology course at the University of Minnesota, who had
217
signed up to participate in the experiments in order to obtain
extra credit on their final exam.
The experimental sessions were conducted with groups of
five to eight girls at one time. An attempt was made to use the
subjects who did not know one another before in order that
their friendship should not influence their wanting to be
together or alone.
There were two experimental conditions^ In the painfulshock condition both the appearance of the experimenter and
the experimental setting were designed so that the subjects
should be really frightened. As the girls arrived at the laboratory,
they were greeted by a man wearing a white laboratory coat
with a stethoscope hanging out of his pocket. Behind him was
an array o f electrical equipment.
After introducing himself the experimenter continued with
a ten-minute lecture on the importance of research in this
area, citing electroshock therapy and so forth (и т. д.). He
concluded by saying that those shocks would be quite painful
but they would do no permanent damage (вред). Obviously,
the procedure must have left the girls feeling very upset
(огорченный).
In the nonpainful-shock condition the experimenter was
the same; but there was no electrical apparatus in the room,
and the subjects were told that the electric shocks would not
be painful and that the subjects would enjoy the experiment.
It is natural that under those conditions the subjects should
not feel so frightened as the first group.
The remaining experimental procedures were identical for
the two conditions. First, in order to find out whether or not
the stress manupulations had worked, the experimenter
measured the am ount o f fear the subjects in the two
experimental conditions experienced. The subjects were asked,
“ How do you feel about being shocked?” and the answers
were rated on a five-point scale, which ranged from “ I dislike
the idea very much” to “ I enjoy the idea very much”.
218
To determine whether the subjects wished to affiliate or
to be alone, the experimenter passed out i sheet of paper and
suggested that they should indicate whether they preferred to
wait alone or with others and the extent of their preference.
Finally, to obtain another measure of the effectiveness of
the stress manipulation, the experimenter passed out another
sheet of paper and required that the subjects should indicate
whether or not she wished to continue with the experiment.
The experiment was then over. None of the subjects actually
received any shocks. The deception (обман) was used to arouse
different intensities of stress.
Thus, on both indicators o f stress, subjects in the painfulshock condition reported more fear about being shocked
than did the subjects in the other condition; and approximately
19% of the subjects in the painful-shock condition refused to
continue in the experiment, whereas none of the subjects in
the other condition refused to continue.
Subjects in the painful-shock condition showed a significantly
greater desire to be with others. 63% o f the subjects in the painful shock condition wanted to wait with other subjects, as compared
to only 33% of the subjects in the nonpainfi.il-shock condition.
Thus in this study the arousing o f stress increased the
tendency to affiliate.
XIV.
Read the notes and make up your own sentences.
SHOULD+ INFINITIVE isused:
a). To express necessity, desirability etc. in subject clauses
It
is
was
will be
natural
necessary
important
strange
impossible
desirable
that
smb should do smth
(Active)
smth should be done
(Passive)
219
Make
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
use of the following:
. students — to work hard
. our group — to take part in this conference
. he — to be admitted to the University
. they — to know about it
. this work — to be fulfilled on time.
b). after verbs expressing necessity, order, request (просьба)
in object clauses
recommend
suggest
order
demand
arrange
require
insist
smb should do smth (Active)
that
smth should be done (Passive)
NOTE: “should” can be omitted in this sentence-pattern.
e.g. He required that subjects indicate their preferences.
Make
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
use of the following:
. Teacher - students - to make regular reports.
. Doctors - patients - to take medicines on time.
. The chief - assistants - to prepare everything necessary.
. The teacher - students - to translate the text.
. Parents - children - to follow their examples.
c). To speak about purposes or reasons after link-words
“in order that” and “so that”.
... IN ORDER THAT somebody should do something
(Active)
something should be done
... SO THAT
(Passive)
2 2 0
Complete the following sentences:
1) . The experimenter separated the subjects in order that
2) . The experimenter placed the displays so that ...
3) . The experimenter explained the importance o f the
experiment in order that ...
4) . The experimenter passed out a sheet of paper in order
that..
5) . The experiment was arranged so th a t...
G R AM M AR : REVISIO N
XV.
Translate the following text.
SOCIAL COMPARISON
People need to evaluate their opinions and abilities, and
when no objective means are available, they do so by compa­
ring their reactions with those of other people. The more
uncertain people are, the stronger is their need for social
comparison.
In many situations the validity of one’s opinions or emo­
tional reactions cannot be readily ascertained. Objective reality
may be either very complicated, inaccessible, or irrelevant. For
instance, in a situation in which students are boycotting classes
because of an administrative decision to fire a popular faculty
member, what would be the relevant, objective physical evidence
on which to base an opinion? Had the professor adequately met
the requirements of his job? Had his hearing been fair? Answers
to these and to many other questions would be very difficult, if
not impossible, to establish. In such ambiguous situations
individuals will turn to the opinions of others to evaluate what is
221
the “correct” opinion. The more ambiguous the situation is the
more likely such a social comparison process is.
With whom do we compare ourselves? Festinger believed
people to seek out others who are similar to themselves in
order to evaluate their reactions.-If another person is similar
to you, his reactions will provide an accurate basis for
your own judgements. The opinion of other college students
about fashions appears to be more informative to you than
your grandmother’s opinion on the subject.
What happens once the individual begins comparing his
reactions with those o f sim ilar people? According to
Festinger, he attempts to reduce any discrepancies that exist
between himself and the others. Once individuals in a group
begin comparing themselves with others, there are strong
pressures towards uniformity. Since each person is looking
to the reactions of others as his source of knowledge about
what is correct, inconsistency is upsetting. If one number
of a group feels that marijuana is harmless and another
feels that it is not, the discrepancy between their opinions
may be unsettling to both. Consequently there are strong
pressures for the group to arrive at a uniform reaction
(Festinger, 1954).
S o cial co m p a riso n th e o ry c le a rly p ro v id es one
explanation of why subjects who are expecting painful
electric shocks would wish to affiliate. Most students are
not used to receiving electric shocks, so they would be
unclear about how they should feel and react. Since there
is no physical reality they can use to test the appropriateness
of their reactions, the subjects will tend to refer to the
experience of the others. Given a choice, students would
prefer to compare their experiences with others who are
similar. And once the social comparison process begins to
operate, there is a tendency toward persuasion and resultant
uniformity of reaction (Schachter, 1959).
222
R EADING
AND
D ISC U SSIO N
XVI.
1. Read the text and enumerate the factors promoting
interpersonal attraction (timed activity)
INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION
The questions that often concern us most whenever we
meet new people are: will they like us, and will we like them?
Research has uncovered a number of factors that promote in­
terpersonal attraction; although none of these factors will surp­
rise you, each contains at least one unexpected twist (поворот).
To most of us, there is something undemocratic about the
possibility that a person’s physical appearance is a determinant
of how others respond to him or her. Unlike character, niceness
and other personal attributes, physical appearance is a factor
over which we have little control. Hence, it seems “unfair*”
to use it as a criterion for liking someone. And, in fact, surveys
have shown that people do not rank physical attractiveness as
very important in their liking o f other people. (Tesser and
Brodie, 1971).
But research on actual behavior shows otherwise (иначе).
For example, a group of psychologists set up a “computer
dance” in which each person was randomly (случайно) paired
with a partner. At intermission each person filled out an
anonymous questionnaire evaluating his or her date (=
partner). In addition experimenters obtained several personality
test scores for each person as well as an independent estimate
(оценка) o f his or her physical attractiveness. The results
showed that only physical attractiveness mattered. None of
the measures o f intelligence, social skills, or “personality”
were related to the partners' liking for one another.
However, in actual pairing off, people tend to end up
with partners who closely match them in physical attractiveness
(Berscheid and WalSter, 1974).
223
If we cannot all be beautiful, some of us might be able to
get on by our competence. The evidence, however, is mixed.
It may be that some people are just «too perfect» and that
when they commit some blunder (оплошность) they become
more human in our eyes and, hence, more likable.
In an experiment to test this hypothesis, subjects listened
to a tape recording of a college student trying out for the
“College Bowl” [ boul ]. Some of the subjects heard a highly
competent individual. He answered 92% of the very difficult
quiz questions, modestly admitted that he had been an honour
student, editor of the yearbook, and a member of the track
(легкая атлетика) team. Other subjects heard an individual
of average ability, one who answered 30% o f the questions,
had received average grades, been a proofreader (корректор)
on the yearbook staff, and tried out for the track team but
failed to make it. On half of the tapes, the individual committed
an embarrassing blunder (оплошность) near the end of the
interview. There was a clatter (стук), the scraping (скрип) of
a chair, and the individual exclaimed, “Oh, my goodness,
I’ve spilled coffee over m y new suit! “ Each subject was asked
to rate the person heard. Blunder or no blunder, the superior
person was liked better than the average one. But the superior
person who committed a blunder was rated as more attractive
than the superior person who did not; the blunder made the
superior person more likable. The average person’s image,
however, was hurt (пострадал) by the blunder. He was rated
as less attractive when he spilled coffee than when he did not
(Aronson, Willerman, and Floid, 1966).
The hypothesis in this study was that a blunder makes the
superior person more human, more like us, and thus more
attractive. But if we think of ourselves as very superior, the blunder
may not endear the superior person to us because it makes him
or her less like ourselves, and hence, less likable. Or consider
the opposite possibility; we have very low self-esteem and are
attracted to those who can serve as an ideal hero for us. Under
224
this condition, blunders give our potential Idols feet of clay*,
and, hence, they again become less likable. To test these possibi­
lities, the blunder experiment was expanded. Spilling the coffee
again enhanced (усиливать) the attractiveness of the superior
person, but only for subjects who had an average self-esteem.
For those subjects with very high or very low self-esteem, the
superior individual was less liked after his blunder. Thus, if you
are perfect, you can expect to impress either other gods like
yourself or those inferiors who are looking for someone to provide
the admirable qualities they themselves lack (недоставать). But if
you want to impress the rest of us, a little bit of ‘awkwardness
(неловкость) is advised.
The blunder study raises another question about attraction:
do we like people who are sim ilar to ourselves, o r do
“opposites attract?” It appears to depend on the dimensions
of similarity being compared. There is a great deal o f evidence
that we prefer people who share (разделять) our beliefs,
attitudes, and values. We tend to forget that some o f our
friends whom we consider very different from ourselves are
often quite similar to us in terms o f such variables as age,
religion, education, and socio-economic class. Hundreds of
statistical studies dating all the way back to 1870 show that
husbands and wives are significantly similar to each other
not only on these sociological characteristics, but also with
respect to physical characteristics like height and eye colour
and psychological characteristics like intelligence (Rubin, 1973).
Thus, most evidence indicates that liking is positively correlated
with similarity on most dimensions.
The saying that “opposites attract” may apply mainly
to certain complementary traits. To take the most obvious
exam ple, one p artn er m ay be quite dom inant and thus
require someone who is relatively more submissive (покорный).
i l H rii Л у — глиняные ноги (consider the saying — 89Я И nil
глиняных ногах)
15 Зак. 3300
225
A person with strong preferences may do best with someone
who is very flexible (гибкий). Note, however, that even in
the case of complementary traits an underlying similarity of
attitudes can often be discerned (разглядеть).
One of the more compelling reasons for liking people is
their liking for us. We tend to like people who like us and to
reject those who reject us. This is especially true when we
need to be appreciated (ценить). In one study college women
were approached by a good-looking man while they waited,
one at a time, in a reception room'to be in an experiment.
After some conversation the man asked the woman for a date
(свидание) for the following evening. In the subsequent
experimental session, each woman was given information that
would make her feel either positively or negatively about
herself. After the experiment, she was aksed to rate a number
of people, including that “fellow whom you were waiting with”.
Women who had been led to feel negatively about themselves
liked their male admirer significantly more than those women
who had received favourable information about themselves.
Temporarily put in a position of needing positive approval (одо­
брение), they gave more positive approval back to the person
providing it.
If all else fails in our quest (поиск) to get someone to like
us, the simple persistence might be our only recourse. There is a
good evidence that sheer familiarity is pervasive determinant of
liking. In one experiment Newcomb (1961) rented a boarding
house and provided free room and board (пансион) to male
students transferring to auniversity in exchange for participation
in his study. In the first year of his study, Newcomb simply
assigned (назначать) people to room at random (бессистемно).
He verified that similarity among people is a strong determinant
of liking. In the second year of study (with a different set of
participants) half of the assignments paired men who were as
different as possible from each other on a host of beliefs, attitudes,
and values. The other half of the assignments paired students
226
who were highly similar. Newcomb expected similarity again to
produce greater liking. But this is not how things turned out.
Familiarity swamped (проглотить) everything. Regardless of
whether low or high similarity had been the basis for room
assignments, roommates came to be attracted to one another.
We can conclude this discussion of interpersonal attraction
with the comforting thought that if you aren’t beautiful,
competent or similar to the one you wish to attract, be
persistent.
2. Find the passage referring to competence factor and
specify the correlation between a person’s attractiveness and
the observer’s self-esteem.
3. Suggest other ways promoting interpersonal
attraction.
XVII.
1. Read the text and state yonr criticism of the author’s
arguments concerning the Scbachter experiment by
answering the questions in the text (groupwork).
Use the following phrases in your discussion:
I have reason to believe t h a t i t must be admitted th a t..;
he neglected (упустить) a very important aspect of ц§ my
point is t h a t h e didn’t emphasize there is one more thing
to be noted ...
HOW WOULD YOU EVALUATE THE
SCHACHTER EXPERIMENT?
(see XIV)
The basic areas involved in conducting an experiment and
some questions relevant to these areas are listed below in the
order in which these areas were discussed in the analysis of
the Aronson-Mills initiation experiment. Consider the implica­
tions that these areas and the accompanying questions have
227
for the Schachter experiment. As you consider these, you
may think of additional problems.
A. Translating the independent variable into experim ental
procedures.
Although we have been treating the conceptual variable as
“stress”, Schachter thought he was manipulating aparticular
type o f stress, namely, anxiety. Do you think that telling sub­
jects they are going to receive a severe electric shock would
make them anxious or fearful? Can you differentiate between
feeling anxious and feeling fearful? Would you expect the
reactions that follow fear to be different from those that follow
anxiety?
B. Obtaining subjects.
The subjects were girls at the University of Minnesota who
were taking an introductory psychology course. They had
volunteered to participate in the experiment in order to obtain
extra credit on their final exam. Do you see any ways in which
their being psychology students might have influenced their
reactions to the experimental procedures?
C. Avoiding confounding (путаница).
Schachter’s experiment was published in 1959, several years
before attention was called to the possible biassing effects of
the experimenter’s own expectations and the characteristics
of the situation. Do you see any ways in which these two
artifacts might have confounded the experimental variable?
Also, do you think that testing the girls in groups might have
influenced their reactions? Might they have looked to see
how others were reacting both before the experiment began
and during the experimental session?
D. Translating the exp erim en ta l variable into the
experimental procedures.
Schachter measured whether or not the subjects would
like to be with others by asking them to complete two question­
228
naire items, on which they indicated whether or not they
would like to be with others and how strongly they felt about
their inclinations (намерения). Can you think of a behavioral
measure that could have been used? Do you think similar
results would be obtained?
E. Conducting the experiment.
Schachter states WHAT the experimenter said, he does
not discuss HOW the experim en ter said it. Was the
experimenter cold and impersonal? Or informal? Would the
experimenter’s manner influence the subjects’ reactions?
F. Conducting the post experimental interview.
During the post experimental interview, the subjects were
asked not to discuss the experiment with others. Is there any
chance they may not have kept the secret? If they didn’t,
could that have influenced the results of later experiments?
2. Sum up Schachter’s results specifying the purpose
of the experiment, the subjects, the experimental conditions,
and the method. Write down your summary.
XVIII.
1. Read the text answering all the questions in the text.
FIRST IMPRESSIONS
You meet someone for the first time and talk with or
observe him or her for a few minutes. Chances are that even
in this short space of time you make judgments about a number
of characteristics. People tend to form impressions quickly on
the basis of very little information.
What kind o f impression do you have o f Jim from the following
observations o f his behaviour?
Jim left the house to get some stationery (канцтовары).
He walked out into the sun-filled street with two of his
229
friends basking in the sun as he walked. Jim entered the
stationery store, which was full of people. Jim talked with
an acquaintance while he waited to catch the clerk’s eye.
On his way out, he stopped to chat (поболтать) with a
school friend who was just coming into the store. Leaving
the store, he walked toward school. On his way he met the
girl to whom he had been introduced the night before.
They talked for a short while, and then Jim left for school.
After school Jim left the classroom alone. Leaving the
school, he started on his long walk home. The street was
brilliantly filled with sunshine. Jim walked down the street
on the shady side. Coming down the street he saw the
pretty girl whom he had met on the previous evening. Jim
crossed the street and entered a candy store (кон­
дитерская) .The store was crowded with students, and he
noticed a few familiar faces. Jim waited quietly until he
caught the counterman’s eye and then gave his order. Taking
his drink, he sat down at a side table. When he had finished
his drink he went home.
What do you think Jim is like? Do you think o f him a s a friendly,
outgoing sort o f person? Or do you have the impression that he
is rather shy (застенчивый) an d introverted!
If you think Jim is better described as friendly than unfriendly,
you are in agreement with most people (78 percent) who read
this description.But examine the description closely; it is actually
composed of two very different portraits. Up to the sentence that
begins “After school, Jim left...”, Jim is portrayed in several
situations as a fairly friendly guy; after that point, however, a
nearly identical set of situations shows him to be much more of a
loner. In fact, 95% of the people who are shown only the first
half of the description rate Jim as friendly, whereas only 3% of
the people who are shown only the second half do so. Thus in the
combined description that you read, it is Jim’s “friendliness”
that seems to win out over his unfriendliness.
230
W hy might this be so? Is it something about the trait o f frie n d ­
liness, or is it that Jim is described as frien d ly first an d unfriend­
ly second? Give yo u r interpretation o f the effect.
The same effect has also been found in the studies where
an actual rather than a hypothetical person was observed and
where traits other than friendliness were examined. For
example, subjects who watched a student attempt to solve a
series of difficult multiple-choice problems were asked to assess
his or her intelligence (Jones and others, 1968). The observed
student always solved exactly 15 o f the 30 problems correctly.
Some subjects watched a student whose 15 successes were
bunched mostly at the beginning of the series; others observed
a student who was more successful at the end.
The individual who had done better at the beginning was
judged more intelligent. Moreover, subjects’ memories were
distorted (искажать) in the same direction. When asked to recall
how many problems the student had solved correctly, subjects
who had seen the 15 successes bunched at the beginning recalled
on the average that the student had solved 20.6 of the 30 problems,
whereas subjects who had seen the successes at the end recalled
seeing only 12.5 successes on the average.
W hat causes th is effect? A cc o u n t f o r the subjects* m isin ­
terpretation.
This effect is known as the primacy effect. If it is due to
decreased attention paid to the later information, then it should
be possible to destroy the effect.
Think o f how this effect could be destroyed.
No primacy effect is observed when subjects are warned about
the dangers of making judgments and told to take all the
information into the account before arriving at their judgements.
The warning is particularly effective if it comes between the
presentation of the inconsistent blocks of information.
231
In an o th e r variation, subjects worked m athem atical
problems or listened to a history lecture between exposures to
the two halves of the description. This condition not only
destroyed the prim acy effect, but reversed it. The later
information had the greater impact.
G ive y o u r explan a tio n o f th e effect. N ow com pare yo u r
explanation to that given below .
This is called the recency effect, because it is the more
recent information that carries the weight. In addition, the
longer the tim e interval between the first and the second
blocks o f information, the greater the recency effect, suggesting
that the earlier information dims in memory. The earlier block
of information is replaced in memory by the later one.
2. Give a general conclusion on the topic.
3. Think of life situations in which either recency or primacy
effect is more important.
XIX.
1. Study the following chart and answer the questions below.
Exchange your opinions using the following phrases
(groupwork):
It’s most likely that
It’s hardly likely that
I hold a
similar view
Quite so
I doubt i f 1 don’t think so.
The author asked one hundred of her students to indicate
whether they wished to be with others, alone, or had no
preference when they were in thirteen different situations. The
questionnaires were handed in anonimously.
STUDENT AFFILIATION PREFERENCES
IN THIRTEEN SITUATIONS
232
Situations
Percentage
of
students
w ho
wished
wished
had
to be
to be
no
with others alone preference
When depressed
r ~ 42
10
48
When worried about a serious
52
44
4
personal problem
When physically tired
6
85
9
When mildly ill
32
49
19
When very happy
88
2
10
When feeling guilty
45
43
Ш
(виновный)
When embarassed
16
76
8
(в замешательстве)
When you want to cry
8
88
4
When in good mood
89
0
11
When busy
12
70
18
After an extensive period
12
75
13
of social contact
On Saturday night
85
1
14
When doing something you've
77
13
10
never done before
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
. Why are there comparatively few people who have no
preferences? What can you say about them?
. Why do so many people want to be with others in situations
V, IX?
. Could you imagine that a person who wishes to be with
others in situation I will wish to be alone in situation 11 or
VI?
. Think of an acquaintance of yours and try to fill in this
questionnaire for him /her and let your classmate describe
the character o f your acquaintance.
. Can you think o f any other situations that would increase
or decrease the desire to be with others?
233
2. Draw your conclusions about affiliation preferences in
stressful and nonstressful situations given in the chart.
XX.
Discuss the following:
a)
. There is an old saying “ Misery (несчастье) loves compa­
n y ” . W h a t d o yo u u n d e rs ta n d by it? A fte r som e
experimentation in this area Schachter pointed out that it
should be modified into “ Misery loves miserable company” .
Do you agree? Could you devise an experiment to prove it?
b)
. (Groupwork) Imagine that you know something unplea­
sant is going to happen to you.
Whom would you choose to keep you company and why?
Would it be someone:
- with a similar personality?
- in the same situation?
- with a similar socio-economic background?
- o f similar intelligence and ability?
- with similar attitudes?
- who gives reassurance and support?
LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
XXI.
1. listen to the text describing an experiment on excessive
(чрезмерная) affiliation in people confined (зд. находящихся
вместе) together for a lengthy period of time.
Point out:
a) the negative reactions observed;
b) the factors increasing stress.
2. Sum up the text and record youself.
234
UNIT X
Here is a list of essay titles published in 1985/1986 catalogue
(Holt Saunders Publishers) of psychological books. Read
through the bibliography and identity the books which could be
useful in your background reading. (Specify your psychologi­
cal interests).
LEARNING TO READ SCIENCE: INTRODUCTION
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR: PERSPECTIVES IN CONFLICT, 2/e.
Price, 1978.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY, 2/e M ehr and Martin, 1961.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY: CHANGING CONCEPTIONS, 2/e.
Zax and Cohen, 1976.
ADJUSTMENT AND GROWTH; THE CHALLENGES OF LIFE, 2/e.
Rathlia and Nevid, 1983.
ADOLESCENTS: BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT, 2 /e .
McCandless and Coop, 1979, Instructor’s Manual.
ADULT DEVELOPMENT, Whitbourne and Weinetock, 1979.
BASIC LEARNING PROCESSES IN CHILDHOOD, Reese, 1977.
BEHAVIOUR INFLUENCE AND PERSONALITY: THE SOCIAL
MATRIX OF HUMAN ACTION, Kraener and Ullmann, 1973.
BENEATH THE MASK: AN INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF
PERSONALITY, 2/e. Montei 1980.
BEYOND COUNSELLING AND THERAPY, 2/e. Carkhuff and
Berenson, 1977.
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF HUMAN SEXUALITY, 2 /e .
Katchadourian and Lunde, 1980.
BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY, Revised edition. Wertneimer,
1979.
CHILD DEVELOPMEHT, Mitchell, 1980.
235
CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 4/e. АтЬгоп and Salkind, 1994.
CHILD, FAMILY, COMMUNITY, Berne, 1985.
CHILDREN AND YOUTH: PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT,
2 /e . Evans a n d M cC andless ,1978.
CLINICAL BEHAIVOURTHERAPY, Goldfried and Davison, 1976.
COGNITION, Matlin, 1983.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FROM CHILDHOOD TO
ADOLESCENCE; A CONSTRUCTIONIST POINT OF VIEW, Sigel
and Cocking, 1976.
COMMUNICATIN IN CONCEPTS AND SKILLS, Shuter,1984.
COMM UNICATION IN ACTION: B U ILD IN G SPEECH
COMPETENCE, Rogers, 1984.
CONDITIONS OF LEARING AND THEORY OF INSTRUCTION,
4/e. Gagne, 1985.
CONTEMPORARY ADULTHOOD, 2/e. Turner and Helms, 1982.
COUNSELLING METHODS, Krumboltz and Thoreeen, 1976.
CURRENT APPROACHES TO DOWN’S SYNDROME, U.K., edited
by Lane and Stratford, 1985.
ENCOUNTERS WITH OTHERS: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
AND YOU, Hamachek, 1982.
ENCOUNTERS WITH THE SELF, 2/e Hamachek, 1977.
ENTERPRISE OF LIVING: A VIEW OF PERSONAL GROWTH, 2/e
White, 1976.
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, 2/e Fisher, Bell and Bamn,
1984.
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: PEOPIE AND THEIR PHYSICAL
SETTINGS, 2/e Proahansky, Ittelson and Rivlin, 1976.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY, Calfee 1985.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS, 3/e Matheson, Beauchamp and Bruce, 1976.
EXPLORING c h il d BEHAVIOUR, 2/e Helms and Turner., 1981.
FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH STATISTICS FOR THE BEHAVIOURAL
SCIENCES, 2/e Roscoe, 1985.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 2 /e M unainger
1975.
236
FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN SEXUALITY, 4 /e K atch-adourian,
1985.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY, B ru ce,
1977.
GROUP COUNSELING, 2 /e Ohisen, 1977
HUMAN COLOR VISION, Boynton and McLeod 1979.
HUMAN COMMUNICATION, 2/e Burgoon and Btiffner 1978.
HUMAN COMMUNICATION: A SYMBOLIC INTERACTION 1ST
PERSPECTIVE, Wood 1982.
HUMAN SEXUALITY, Meeks and Heit 1982.
HUMAN SEXUALITY, Rathus 1963.
INFANT DEVELOPMENT, Barclay 1985.
INFORMATION PROCESSING, MOTOR SKILLS, Marteniuk
1976.
INTERPLAY: THE PROCESS OV INTERPERSONAL COMMU­
NICATION, 2/e Adier, Rosenfeid and Town© 1983.
INTERPLAY: THE PROCESS OF INTERPERSONAL, COMMU­
NICATION, 3/e, Adler, Rosenfeid and Toime 1985.
INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE, 2/e, Froinkin and Rodman
1963.
INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY, 3/e, Miachel 1985.
INVITATION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH, Evana 1985.
JEAN PIAGET - CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERSY, U.K. Edited
by Modgil and Modgil 1952.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, 2/e
l a t e r LIFE, 2 /e A iken 1982.
Dale
LEARNING THEORY, 2/e Bollee 1979.
LEVELS OF PERSONALITY, U .K . C o o k 1984.
LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT, 2/e (H S IE ) Turner and Helms
1983.
LIFESPA N H U MA N D E V E L O PM E N T , 2 /e Ambron and
Brodzinsky 1982.
LIKING AND LOVING: AN INVITATION TO SOCIAL PSYCHO­
LOGY, R ubin 1973.
LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY, H ickerson 1980.
237
LOOKING OUT/LOOKING IN: INTERPERSONAL COMMU­
NICATION, 4 /e Adler and Towne 1984.
METHOD IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Sheridan 1979.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Craig and Metze
1978.
MOTIVATION AND DYNAMIC STRUCTURE, U.K. Carrel and
Child 1975.
NATURE AND NURTURE OF TWINS, Bryan 1983.
NEXT GENERATION: A BOOK ON PARENTIHG Lunde and
Kunde 1980.
OBSERVATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR CHILD STUDY, Irwin and
Bushnell 1980.
ON EMOTIONS, NEEDS, AND OUR ARCHAIC BRAIN, Malmo
1975
PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR BEHAVIOUR: DEVELOPMENTAL
ASSESSMENT AND THERAPY, U.K. Laszlo and Bairetow 1985
PERSONALITY THEORIES: GUIDES TO HUMAN NATURE, 2/e
DiCaprio 1983.
A h e u r is t ic a ppr o a c h , Abramson 1980.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY, Levit 1981.
pr a c t ic a l c o u n s e l l in g sk il l s , U.K. Nelson-Jonse 1963.
PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY, Price, Glickatein, Horton and
pe r s o n a l it y :
Bailey 1965.
PSYCHOLOGY OV PERCEPTION, 2/e (HSIE) Damber and
Warm 1981.
PSYCHOLOGY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND MEANINGS, 5/e. Boume,
Jr. and Ekstrand 1985.
PSYCHOLOGY: THE h u m a n SCIENCE, Trotter and McConell
1979.
PSYCHOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR, 2/e Baron and
Kantowitz, Byrne 1981.
PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING, Kerr 1982.
PSYCHOTHERAPIES: A COMPARATIVE CASEBOOK, Edited by
Morse and Watson 1977.
QUEST: A SEARCH FOR SELF, 2 /e Cirese 1985.
238
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Perlman and Cozby 1983.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON
PEOPLE,Cvetkovich, Baumgardner and Trimble 1964.
SOCIOLOGY OF d e v ia n t b e h a v io r , 6/e CHnard and Meier
1985.
st a t ist ic s , 2/e Witte 1985.
STUDY OF PERSONALITY, Babladelis 1984.
SURVEY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, 2/e Berkowitz 1980.
SYSTEMS AND THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGY, 4/e Chaplin and
Krawiec 1979.
THEORIES Of PERSONALITY AUD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY, 3/ё
Millon 19B3.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY, (HSIE) Feist 1985.
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY,
U.K. Nelson-Jones 1982.
THEORY AND RESEARCH IN ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY, 2/e
Rocenhan and London 1975.
THINKING ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY Yogel 1985.
TOWARD A COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY: A BEHAVIORAL SCIEN­
CE APPROACH Rappaport 1977.
UNDERSTANDING ADULTHOOD Newman and Newman 1983.
UNDERSTANDING CHILDREN’S BEHAVIOR DISORDERS,
Gelfand, Drew and Jensen 1982.
UNDERSTANDING DEATH, DYING AND BEREAVEMENT
Leming and Dickson 1985.
UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOR: AN INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY, 4/e McConnell 1983.
UNDERSTANDING HUMAN COMMUNICATION, 3/e Adler and
Rodman 1985.
USING STATISTICS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Walker
1985.
WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Rambo 1985.
239
II.
Look at the tables of contents below. Where can you find
information about the following:
1) . Children and language competence.
2) . Encounters with the Self and with Others: communication
needs.
3) . Specific thinking disorders.
4) . The use of simulations in personality research.
5) . Breakdowns in adolesence.
6) . L.Vygotsky and J.Piaget: generalization in pre-school
children.
7) . Emotions and decision taking.
6). Perception of interpersonal preference in small groups.
9) . Student - Teacher communication training from the per­
sonality angle.
10) . Family interaction conflicts.
11) . High school group counselling.
12) . Self-esteem in adulthood.
13) . Research methods carried out in the Soviet Union and
abroad into abnormal behaviour.
(Moscow State University, psychology
dept, graduation paper titles 1987)
PSYCHOLOGY, ITS PRINCIPLES AND MEANINGS
Contents:
The Nature of Psychology - Biological Foundations of
Behavior - Sensation and Perception - Basic Principles of
Learning - Human Learning, Memory, and Language Cognitive Processes -Motivation and Emotion - Development
Psychology - Personality - - Social Psychology Psychopathology - Psychotherapy - Appendices - Glossary Bibliography - Subject Index.
240?
T H E O R IE S O F P E R S O N A LIT Y .
Contents:
Introduction - Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis - Alfred
Adler: Individual Psychology - Carl Jung: Analytical Psycho­
logy - Harry Stack Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory - John
Dollard and Neal Miller: Learning Theory - B.F.Skinner: A
Behavioral Analysis -Julian Rotter: Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura: Cognitive Learning Theory - J.P.Guilford/
Raymond B.Cattell/Hans J. Eysenck: Trait and Factor Theories
- Gordon Allport: The Psychology of the Individual A.H.MasIow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory - Carl Rogers: PersonCentered Theory - Concluding Remarks - Glossary - Index.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Contents:
Part One - Views o f Abnormal Behaviour - Introduction A Historical Perspective - Psychodynamic and HumanisticExperiential Approaches - Radical Behaviourism and Social
Learning - A Developmental and Social Systems Perspective Classification and Diagnosis - Part Two: Some Nonpsychotic
Disorders and Their Treatment - Reactions to Stress and
Neurotic Traits - Anxiety, Phobic, and Obsessive - Compulsive
Disorders - Conversion and Dissociative Disorders - Insight
Therapy - Behaviour Therapy - Group, Family, and
Community; Treatment and Prevention - Psycho-physiological
Disorders - Sexual Dysfunctions and Variations in Sexual
Behaviour - Part Three: Schizophrenia and the Affective
Disorders - Schizophrenia and Paranoia - The Causes of Schizo­
phrenia - The Treatment of Schizophrenia - Affective Disorders
and Suicide - Involuntary Incarceration and Criminal
Responsibility: Legal and Ethical Issues - Part Four:
Developmental Disorders in Children - Some Specific
16 3tK. 3300
241
D evelopm ental D isorders o f C hildhood - Pervasive
Developmental Disorders - Part Five: Social Deviations Antisocial Behaviour, Violence, and crime - Drug Abuse Part Six: Impaired Brain Functioning - Mental Retardation Organic Brain Syndrome.
(University of North Carolina)
PR INCIPLES O F P S Y C H O LO G Y
Contents:
Part I. Psychology: The Science and the Scientists - Intro­
duction - Part II. Perception and Consciousness - The Nervous
System - Sensation - Perception - Consciousness - Part III.
Growthf Learning and Language - Development - Learning Memory and Cognition - Language and Cognition - Part IV.
Motives and Emotions - Motivation and Emotion - Sexual
Behavior - Part V. Personality and Assessment - Intelligence Part VI. Abnormal Behavior.; Patterns and Treatment Abnormal Behavior - Behavior Change - Part VII. Social
Influence and Interaction - Social Influence - Social Interaction
- Appendix.
(University of Michigan)
LEVELS O F PER SO N ALITY
Contents:
Preface - G ideon’s Army: The Study o f individual
differences - Section 1. The Surface. - A Rather Dull Fellow;
Traits and factors - The Prisoner of Spandau: The problem of
consistency -Section II. Below the Surface (1). The Biological
Line - Brave New World: Learning and habits - Eysenck’s
Demon; Biology and personality - Section III. Below the
Surface (2) The Phenomenal Line - Tumbleweed or Boulder?:
The phenomenal approach - I Didn’t Get Where I am Today
242
by Reading Stuff Like This: The self-concept - Section IV.
Below the Surface (3) The Motivation at Line - The Ancient
Greek Export Drive: Motives and instincts - The Man Who
Collected Bradshaws: Psychoanalysis and personality - Section
V. Two Examples - The School Bully: Aspects of aggression The Most Unwelcome Visitor: Aspects of homosexuality and
sexual deviation - The Line Ahead: The future of personality
research - References - Index.
(University College of Swansea)
Refer to the list of essay titles in ex. I if neccesary.
m
State the title of the paper you are currently working on.
Read the descriptions of the following books in the Holt
Saunders catalogue 1985/1986. Decide which, if any, would
be of use to you and state why/why not.
1). LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION,
2/e, 1976. Philip S. Dale (University of Washington)
In introducing the process of language acquisition by child­
ren, the author blends research from the fields of psychology,
linguistics, speech, and education. The text covers phonological
development, grammatical development, semantic develop­
ment, language and thought, reading, dialect differences, and
testing, with emphasis given to the current psycholinguistie
approach to language development, drawing on generative
linguistic and cognitive psychology. It contains expanded
discussions of the acquisition of language other than EnglishRussian, Finnish, sign language by deaf children - which
provides a much broader basis for understanding child language
as a general process. A chapter on assessment techniques for
language * and short “readings” from literature in the field,
plus extensive discussions of dialect difference and language
development and further depth and support. Each chapter
includes summaries, questions and bibliographies.
243
2)
. MIND AND BRAIN. PRINCIPAL OF HUMAN NEURO­
PSYCHOLOGY, 1984. Alberta Gil insky (University of Bridgeport)
Evidence is presented in this challenging book from neuro­
logical and psychological sources, that our conscious experience
is the direct response of single neural units (cognons) in the
brain centres. The concept provides a simple indivisible unit
for higher cortical functions unifying many fragmental data
from a variety of sources in biology and psychology. It links the
processes o f perception, thought, and imagination to one
another and relates these mental reactions to the motor
reactions of the organism.
Topics covered include the psychology of perception and
cognition; categories of perception in sensory analyzers; the
physiology of learning, associations and memory; the effects
of brain injuries; and ethical issues in phycho-physiology.
3)
. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION AND
PSYCHOLOGY, 3/e William A.Mehrens & Irvin J. Lehmann
(both of Michigan State University).
Designed for the first course in educational or psycholo­
gical measurement, this text provides balanced coverage of
the construction, selection, evaluation, interpretation, and
use of both teacher-made and standardized tests. It covers
current research, and theory, stresses the practical applications
of test date, and addresses contemporary concerns such as
accountability, test bias, and diagnostic/prescriptive testing.
This new edition includes changes in both the organization
and relative emphases of topics, including shortened test
reviews and a modified discussion of criterion-referenced tests.
Completely current, it features updated, expanded coverage
of a wide variety of topics such as assessing the exceptional
child, validity, measurement in the affective domain, coaching,
minimal competency tests, and legal issues in assessment.
Superb pedagogical support includes learning objectives, chapter
244
summaries, a glossary, author /su b ject indexes, and a
comprehensive Instructor’s Manual with test items.
4)
. i n t r o d u c t i o n TO p e r s o n a l it y , 3/e Walter Mischel
(Stanford University)
Mischel’s classic text provides a thorough discussion of the
major theoretical approaches to personality, their applications
for personality assessment and therapy, and a synthesis of
current issues and findings in personality psychology. In this
latest edition there are chapters on “Social Cognition and the
Self’ and “Coping with Anxiety and Stress” . Part Three
discusses current development and new research on learned
helplessness, ego strength, anxiety, defence, the coping
process, and stability and change in personality. Mischel
presents recent developments in cognitive-social learning theory
and the nature and uses of personality trait constructs; and an
elaborate illustration program includes 40 photographs, tables,
charts and figures.
5)
. CURRENT APPROACHES TO DOWN’S SYNDROME. Edited
by David Lane (University of Birminghan) & Brian Stratford
(University of Nottingham)
Down’s Syndrome accounts for over one-third of all mentally
handicapped children and adults. It has undergone a vast amount
of investigation of its effects and their treatment, yet there is a
lamentable gap between the knowledge of researchers and that
of practitioners in the field. In this book, for the first time, the
results of accumulated research are brought together and made
easily accessible for all those concerned with the care of those
suffering from Down’s Syndrome.
These specially commissioned articles bring together a
comprehensive collection of experts who outline the current
developments in their specialisms, with particular emphasis
on the implications for current practice. The topics are organized
into three main sections (medical, educational and social)
245
but their interdependence and the need for an integrated
approach is stressed throughout. The picture that emerges of
the development and life changes of the Down’s Syndrome
sufferer is more encouraging than was once thought, possible,
given the positive action o f the parents and professionals
responsible for them . C urrent Approaches to Down’s
Syndrome is designed for all those in the caring, educational
and medical professions, in particular teachers, educational
psychologists, speech and physical therapists, nurses, doctors,
social-support staff, and parents.
6). THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COUNSELLING PSY­
CHOLOGY. Richard Nelson-Jones.
In the first comprehensive book on counselling that is nonAmerican, leading British counselling psychologist Dr. Nelson
-Jones - founder member of the British Association for
Counselling and Chairperson of the Counselling Psychology
Section of the British Psychological Society - focuses on the
needs o f the practising counsellor. Providing a thorough
introduction to theoretical concepts that underlie conselling
psychology, he proceeds to a discussion of the fundamental
counselling relationship and additional ways of developing
the counsellor’s professional knowledge and skill. He covers a
range o f approaches to the counselling o f clients with
relationship, educational and learning, career and occupational
choice problems, including essay questions, topics for
discussion and practical exercises such as interview techniques
and group counselling practice.
The text is very well-referenced and includes a survey of
the counselling services in Britain, the USA and Australia - a
genuinely comprehensive reference element that increases the
value of this book not only for the professional counsellor but
also as a teaching aid.
In medical schools or universities The Theory and Practice
of Counselling Psychology is suitable for students studying
246
medicine, psychiatry or psychology. In the professional market
it is ideal for social workers, educational and occupational
psychologists, doctors, psychiatrists and teachers, and it will
be welcomed as counsellors in the many state run or voluntary
agencies - e.g. Citizens Advice Bureaux, the National Marriage
Guidance Council, the Student Counselling Service, DHSS,
Race Relations, the Probation and After C ite Service,
Teacher Centres, and legal Aid Schemes.
7)
. LEVELS O F PERSONALITY Mark Cook (University College
of Swansea)
This text for the advanced undergraduate student of human
personality offers an unusual and stimulating approach to the
subject. Instead of the more traditional “catalogue” of persona­
lity theories, Dr. Cook has organized his book around the
concept of “levels of description”. Starting with the surface
level of personality traits and straightforward descriptions, he
goes on to discuss factor analysis, biological and genetic
accounts, personal construct and self theories, motivational
and psycho-dynamic levels of explanation. “Case studies” at
the end of the book examine the application of these levels of
description to two special areas: sexuality and aggression.The
text is well-illustrated, fully referenced and indexed, and
designed for students and lecturers in psychology departments
in universities and polytechnics, studying personality or social
psychology, also professional and academic psychologists.
8)
. PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR BEHAVIOUR. Developmental
Assessment and Therapy. Judith I.Laszlo (University o f Western
Australia) & Philip J.Bairstow (Institute of Child Health,
University of London)
The ability to execute co-ordinated movement is one of the
most important abilities children acquire. Some children,
however, experience difficulty ranging from mild to severe in
developing perceptual-motor skills. The aim o f this book is to
247
describe perceptual-motor behaviour and to examine its
development in the normal child. The authors then apply this
developmental analysis to formulate principles and testing
procedures for the diagnosis of perceptual-motor disorders.
They also offer suggestions for the design of therapeutic
methods, and illustrate in detail one such effective programme.
Two major themes are developed in the book. First, the
interdependence of research and applied work is demonstrated
and the benefits of cooperation between academic, educational
and clinical workers are stressed. Second, the advantages of an
analytical approach and the elucidation o f processes
contributing to skilled motor performance are highlighted.
This book is designed for all those concerned with
perceptual-motor disorders and their treatment; psychologists
(in particular clinical, educational and child psychologists),
paediatric neurologists, physiotherapists, doctors, teachers and
researchers.
9). FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN SEXUALITY, 4/e Herant
A.Katchadourlan, MD (Stanford University)
Extensively revised, this book provides the student with a
comprehensive introduction to the biological, behavioural and
social aspects of human Sexuality, and is appropriate for
undergraduate level courses in health and physical education,
psychology, biology, fam ily life, hom e econom ics,
anthropology, sociology, and nursing. The text has been
updated to include the most recent information in the field
such as G-Spot; the effects of hormones on the brain; the
“sponge”; herpes and AIDS; and feminism and gay liberation.
Four new chapters cover sex and interpersonal relationships,
sexuality and the origins of culture.
IV.
Look through the study given below and
248
1) . Find bibliographic data (author, date of this and rele­
vant publications, centres of research, topic, and
intensity of research).
2) . State the function of the summary. Read it, identify
the character of the publication, the problems studied,
and the author’s findings.
3) . Suppose you wanted the information for your work.
Read the paper. Speak of the purpose, method and major
results of the research.
MEASURING SYMPATHY TOWARD HANDICAPPED
CHILDREN WITH THE “LOST-LETTER” TECHNIQUE
LEONARD G.CAIRNS
(University of Sydney)
and
STEPHEN BOCHHER
(University of New South Wales)
Three hundred stamped and addressed letters were “lost” in
public places.The manipulation consisted of varying the addresses
on the envelopes, there being five experimental and one control
condition, each with an N of 50. In the experimental conditions,
the letters were addressed to groups concerned with the welfare
of handicapped children, whereas the control was simply the
Children’s Aid Group. The response rate in four of the five
experimental conditions was greater than in the control
condition, thereby providing for the predictive validity of the
“lost-letter” technique.
This research note reports on a study which had two aims:
first, to further examine the predictive validity of the lost-letter
technique (Milgram, Mann & Harter, 1965); and second, to
unobtrusively measure whether handicapped children elicit more
sympathetic behaviour than an appropriate control group.
The lost-letter technique is a particularly ingenious instance
of an unobtrusive and nonreactive experimental procedure
(Webb, Campbell-Schwartz & Sechtest) 1966). A large number
249
of stamped and addressed envelopes are distributed in public places
by the experimenter. When a person comes across one of these
“lost letters”, he has the choice of posting, disregarding, or
destroying the article. Presumably the finder’s behaviour is an
indication of how he relates to the addressee. The addressee’s
name can be systematically varied, and serves as the independent
variable in experiments employing this technique.
Three hundred stamped, addressed and scaled envelopes
were distributed in the downtown area of Sydney. Distribution
occurred on two consecutive days, with equal numbers of
letters being dropped on each day. There were six different
conditions, five experimental and one control, each with an
N of 50, and the manipulation consisted of varying the names
of the addressees. The conditions under which the experiment
was run, are set out in Table 1.
All 300 addresses had the same Post Office Box number at
the Sydney Mail Exchange, and all the envelopes contained
an identical letter addressed to a Mr Langham, advising him
of a change in the letter writer’s address. The letter was signed,
and the names and addresses referred to actually existed, in
case a finder opened the letter and wanted to contact the
experimenter.
The letters were arranged into two random sequences of
150 items each, and distributed on a Wednesday and Thursday
in April 1973, between the hours of 10.00 a.m. and 5.00 a.m.
The location of the experiment was a pre-arranged route
covering the entire downtown area of Sydney. A letter was
dropped approximately every 300 yards on that side of the
footpath nearest to the building alignment. Gutters, drains,
and building or shop doorways were deliberately avoided,
but no conscious effort was made to drop the envelopes face
up. The procedure seems to have been successfully executed,
since no one approached the experimenter with awkward
questions or suspicious glances during the two days that he
spent in the field.
250
Results and Discussion
The dependent variable was the number of letters returned
in each condition, and these results are presented in Table 1.
The return rate in each of the five experimental conditions
was compared against the return rate in the control or
Children’s Aid Group. Tests for significant differences between
two proportions, as described by Ferguson (1966), were carried
out on each comparison, and the results of this analysis also
appear in Table у
TABLE
1
Number of Letters Returned, and Opened in Six
Conditions*
Conditions
Children's
Aid Groups
No. Letters
Lost
Returned
wLevel of
Significance
No. Letters
Opened
Experimental
Retar- Handided capped
Control
Deaf
Slow
Blind
50
43
2.93
50
41
2.42
50
40
2.18
50
40
2.18
50
34
0.83
.01
.05
.05
.05
NS
7
11
5
5
3
Children's
Aid Group
50
30
—
4
*Test for significant differences between two proportions.
The data show a significantly higher return rate in four out of
the five experimental conditions. Only in the Blind Children’s
Aid Group condition was the return rate not significantly higher,
although even here there is a trend in the correct direction.
The data taken as a whole provide encouraging evidence of
the predictive validity of the “lost-letter” technique as an in­
dicator of social attitudes. The study indicates that behaviour
251
instrum ental to helping children who are labelled as
handicapped in one form or another, is consistent with the
social norm of feeling sympathetic for those “less fortunate
than ourselves”.
The present investigation is part of a continuing research
programme consisting of a series of nonreactive field studies of
Australian inter-group behaviour (Bochner, 1971, 1972).
These studies point to the feasibility of assembling a body of
psychological data that is not dependent on nor limited by
laboratory and paper and pencil procedures, which are still
the most commonly used research methods despite their
demonstrated weaknesses (Wicker, 1969). However, some
serious reservations also exist about unobtrusive field studies,
the main problem being the difficulty of inferring attitudes
from action. In the present study we have been able to provide
positive evidence for the usefulness o f one particular
unobtrusive method, the “losf-letter” technique, a procedure
of some potential because it can be adapted to a variety of
issues.
References
1. Bochner S. The use of unobtrusive measures in cross. cultural attitude research. In R.M. Berndt ( Ed.), A
Question of Choice: An Australian Aborigenal dilemma.
Nedlands, W.A.: University of Western Australian Press,
1971.
2. Bochner S. An unobtrusive approach to the study of housing
discrimination against aborigenes. Australian Journal of
Psychology, 1972, 24, 335-337.
3. Ferguson G.A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and
Education. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1966.
4. Milgram S., Mann L. & Harter S. The lost-letter technique:
A tool of social research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 1965,
29, 437-433.
252
§, Werb a i t Campbell D.T., Schwartli R.D. & Sechrest L.
Unobtrusive Measures: Noncreative Research in the So­
cial Sciences. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966.
6. Wicker A.W. Attitudes versus actions: The relationship of
verbal and behavioral responses to attitude objects, Journal
of Social Issues, 1969, 25 (4), 41-78.
4. Write an abstract of the paper and give assessment of the
study if possible.
Abbreviations used in grammar notes:
n. - noun - существительное
V. - verb - глагол
adj. - adjective - прилагательное
adv. - adverb - наречие
prep. - preposition - предлог
pron. - pronoun - местоимение
inf. - infinitive - инфинитив
part.- participle - причастие
ger. - gerund - герундий
Contents
Unit I. Basic Approaches to Psychology
Grammar: The Passive Voice
5
17
Unit II. Psychophysiology
Grammar: The Participles
29
39
Unit III. Thinking
Grammar: The infinitive
58
67
Unit IV. Sleep
Grammar: The Complex Subject
81
89
Unit V. Personality
Grammar: The Gerund
103
112
Unit VI. Perception
Grammar: The Conditional Sentences
127
139
Unit VII. Emotions
Grammar: The Subjunctive Mood
158
166
Unit VIII. Industrial Psychology
Grammar: Modals
179
188
Unit IX. Affiliation
Grammar: The Suppositional Mood
207
217
Unit X. Learning to Read Science: Introduction
235
К уликова Н ина Владимировна,
М ельник Людмила Александровна,
З енкевич Е лена Борисовна
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