Серия Высшее образование) С. И. Гарагуля АНГЛИЙСКИЙ я зы к р я СТУДЕНТОВ СТРОИТЕЛЬНЫХ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ Learning Building Construction in English Рекомендовано Государственным образовательным учреждением высшего профессионального образования «Московский государственный лингвистический университет» в качестве учебного пособия для студентов, обучающихся по специальностям ВПО 270102 «Промышленное и гражданское строительство», 270105 «Городское строительство и хозяйст во», 120303 «Городской кадастр», 270114 «Проектирование зданий» Ростов-на-Дону «ФЕНИКС» 2011 УДК 811 111 69 0(0758) ББК 81 2А нгл-923 КТК 8032 Г20 Рецензенты: доктор филологических наук, профессор О Н Прохорова (Белгородский государственный университет) доктор технических наук, профессор А Г Юрьев (Белгородский государственный технологический университет им В Г Шухова) Р2о Гарагуля С. И. Английский язык для студентов строительных специ­ альностей. Learning Building Construction in English : учебное пособие / С. И. Гарагуля. — Ростов н/Д : Феникс, 2011. — 347, [1] с. — (Высшее образование). ISBN 978-5-222-18653-4 Учебное пособие построено на базе вузовского стандарта курса иностранного языка для неязыковых вузов и рассчита­ но на профессионально-ориентированный этап обучения. Ос­ новная цель учебного пособия — развитие и совершенствова­ ние умения читать и переводить оригинальную литературу по специальности, а также навыков устной речи и аудирования в пределах пройденной тематики. Уделяется особое внима­ ние расширению словарного запаса по строительному делу, изучению и тренировке грамматических структур, которые характеризуются высокой частотностью употребления в на­ учной речи Предназначено для студентов инженерно-строительных ву­ зов, может быть рекомендовано магистрантам, аспирантам, научным работникам и широкому кругу специалистов-практиков, желающих повысить свой уровень владения профес­ сиональным английским языком. ISBN 978-5-222-18653-4 УДК 811.111 69 0(075 8) ББК 81.2А нгл-923 © Гарагуля С И , 2011 © Оформление ООО «Феникс», 2011 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для студентов инженерно-строительных вузов, обучающихся по специально­ стям «Промышленное и гражданское строительство», «Город­ ское строительство и хозяйство», «Городской кадастр», «Про­ ектирование зданий» и др. Оно может быть рекомендовано магистрантам, аспирантам, научным работникам и широко­ му кругу специалистов-практиков, желающих повысить свой уровень владения профессиональным английским языком. Пособие построено на базе вузовского стандарта курса ино­ странного языка для неязыковых вузов и рассчитано на про­ фессионально-ориентированный этап обучения. Основная цель учебного пособия — развитие и совершен­ ствование умения читать и переводить оригинальную литера­ туру на английском языке по специальности, а также навыков устной речи и аудирования в пределах пройденной тематики. Уделяется особое внимание расширению словарного запаса по строительному делу, повторению грамматических структур ба­ зового курса и их тренировке. Весь материал учебного пособия разделен на 12 уроков-тем (Units) и включает части Supplementary Readings Tapescripts. Каждый урок-тема, посвященный конкретной инженерно­ строительной проблематике, состоит из четырех разделов (Sections): Vocabulary and Word Study, Grammar, Reading and Speaking и Listening and Speaking. Раздел Vocabulary and Word Study знакомит студентов с про­ фессиональной лексикой, которая определяется содержанием текстов в пределах изучаемой темы. Активный словарь отра­ жает наиболее важные понятия и явления, представленные в литературе по строительству. Терминологическая лексика зак­ репляется в разнообразных упражнениях, которые построены и расположены по принципу «от простого к сложному» — от уровня слова, словосочетания, предложения до уровня 4 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей сверхфразового единства. Имеются упражнения на словооб­ разование, многозначность, определение значений именных словосочетаний с препозитивными определениями, узнава­ ние интернациональных слов и терминов В разделе Grammar представлены коммуникативно-ори­ ентированные задания, нацеленные на развитие грамматичес­ ких навыков чтения специальной литературы на английском языке. Грамматический материал включает преимуществен­ но те явления, которые характеризуются высокой частотнос­ тью употребления в научной речи. Прежде всего, это отно­ сится к структуре предложения, формам страдательного зало­ га, модальным глаголам, неличным формам глагола и др. Каждый раздел Reading and Speaking содержит три аутен­ тичных текста - А, В и С, объединенных тематикой урока и системой упражнений, которые ориентированы на овладение студентами основными видами чтения и обучение говорению. Текст А, рассматриваемый в качестве основного, предназна­ чен для изучающего чтения. К нему даются предтекстовые и послетекстовые упражнения. Предтекстовые задания пресле­ дуют цель формирования навыков прогнозирования и умения вести беседу общего содержания по теме урока. Упражнения послетекстового этапа способствуют развитию монологичес­ кой речи —констатировать факт или высказать мнение, сде­ лать короткое сообщение или обобщение. К данному тексту предусмотрено задание на чтение определенного абзаца вслух. Тексты В и С предполагают формирование навыков ознако­ мительного, просмотрового или поискового чтения. Упраж­ нения к этим текстам направлены на определение основной темы или идеи текста, поиск конкретных данных, использо­ вание определенной информации в соответствии с коммуни­ кативными задачами. В разделе Listening and Speaking представлены задания к двум аудиотекстам, которые могут быть прочитаны препода­ вателем или звучать в записи. Небольшие по объему тексты монологического характера непосредственно связаны с темой Предисловие 5 урока. Контроль понимания осуществляется с помощью воп­ росно-ответных упражнений, путем заполнения таблиц/схем и др. Цель заданий состоит в понимании общего смысла про­ слушанного текста, нахождении или извлечении конкретной информации, которые служат основой для краткого изложе­ ния содержания аудиотекста, дискуссии по теме и т.д. В разделе Tapescripts приводятся тексты для аудирования К этой части учебника студенты обращаются на заключитель­ ном этапе работы над разделом Listening and Speaking, что позволяет им проверить правильность понимания текста, а также выявить непонятные фрагменты, выписав и выучив незнакомые слова. Раздел Supplementary Reading включает дополнительные тексты без заданий (статьи из британского журнала “New Civil Engineer International”), которые могут быть использованы как для работы в группе, так и для самостоятельной работы студентов. Они либо расширяют информацию по строитель­ ству, представленную в уроках-темах, либо освещают новые проблемы в области строительства. Материалы настоящего учебного пособия прошли апроба­ цию на занятиях со студентами различных групп и уровней архитектурно-строительного института Белгородского государ­ ственного технологического университета им. В.Г. Шухова. Автор считает своим долгом выразить искреннюю при­ знательность рецензентам —доктору филологических наук, профессору Ольге Николаевне Прохоровой за детальный анализ рукописи и ценные критические замечания, а также доктору технических наук, профессору Александру Гаври­ ловичу Юрьеву за консультации по отбору материала для данного пособия. Автор UNIT 1 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1. R e a d an d m e m o r iz e th e a c tiv e v o c a b u la r y to t h e t e x t “B u ild in g E n g in e e r in g a s a D is c ip lin e ” and tr a n sla te t h e given 1. b uild (b u ilt) [b ild ] v — с т р о и т ь b u ild in g n — здан и е, стр о ен и е, сооруж ение; строи тель­ ство b u ild in g d e sig n [ d i 'z a i n ] — п р о е к т и р о в а н и е з д а н и й T hey build n e w h o u s e s in th a t a r e a . T y p e s o f buildings m a y b e building c la ssifie d a c c o r d in g t o th e ro le in t h e c o m m u n ity . M o d e m c o n s titu te s a v ita l e l e m e n t o f n a tio n a l in d u s tr y 2. c o n s tr u c t [ k a n 's tr A k t] v — с т р о и т ь , с о о р у ж а т ь c o n str u c tio n [ k s n 's t r s k j n ] n — строительство, стр о й к а b u ild in g c o n str u c tio n — д о м о с т р о е н и е T h e y a r e p la n n in g to construct a n e w s u p e r m a r k e t n e a r o u r h o u s e . T h e fa c to r s t h a t c o n d itio n th e s e le c tio n o f m a te r ia ls f o r construction in c lu d e a v a ila b ility , c o s t a n d p h y s ic a l p r o p e r tie s . D u r in g building construction, se v e ra l th in g s w e n t w r o n g . 3. building e n gin eerin g L e n d ji'm a r ir j] — с т р о и т е л ь с т в о г р а ж ­ дан ски х здани й и ш 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION U civil e n g in e e r in g [ 's iv l] — г р а ж д а н с к о е с т р о и т е л ь с т в о stru ctu ra l e n g in e e r in g ['s trA k tfra l] — п р о е к т и р о в а н и е з д а ­ н и й и сооруж ений B u ild in g s c ie n c e a n d building engineering a re fie ld s o f s tu d y c o n c e r n e d w ith t h e t e c h n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f b u ild in g s , b u ild in g m a te r ia ls , a n d b u ild in g s y s te m s . I a m d o in g a civil engineenng c o u rs e a t th e u n iv e rs ity , w h ic h is v e ry h a rd , b u t I a m re a lly e n jo y in g it. Structural engineering h a s m a d e ra p id s tr id e s in t h e la s t c e n tu r y . 4 . a ir -c o n d itio n in g [ 'e a k a n .d ijr iirt] a ir -c o n d itio n e r n — кондиционирование n — кондиционер air-conditioning. T h e r e a re m a n y s im ila r itie s in an air-conditioner w o rk s t o th e w a y a re fr ig e r a to r w o rk s. B u ild in g s h a v e th e w a y 5. m e a n [m i:n ] (m e a n t [ m e n t] ) v — з н а ч и т ь ; п о д р а з у м е в а т ь m e a n s [m i:n z ] n — средство, сп особ ; ресурсы by m eans o f — п о с р е д с т в о м means “ S t o p ” . T h e y d i d n ’t p r o v id e m e w ith a n y means o f tr a n s p o r t. T h e te s ts w e re m a rk e d by means o f a c o m p u te r . T h e r e d lig h t 6 . d iv e r se [ d a i'v a :s ] adj — р а з н о о б р а з н ы й , р а з н ы й n — р азн о о б р ази е, м н о го о б р ази е d iv ersity [d a i'v a :s iti] T h e g ro w in g b u ild in g in d u s tr y o ffe rs H e h a s a g re a t diverse j o b o p p o r tu n itie s . diversity o f in te re s ts . 7. im p a ct [T m p s e k t] — n воздей стви е, вл и ян и е T h e c o m p u t e r h a s h a d ( m a d e ) a g re a t 8 . m e a su r e [ ' т е з а ] — impact o n m o d e m life. n v м ера; и зм ерять, и м еть р азм ер ы п — разм ер , и зм ер ен и е m e a su r e m e n t [ ' т е з э т э т ] take c e r t a i n measures t o re d u c e t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f t h e m a te r ia l. S h e measured th e ta b le T h is ta b le measures tw o m e tr e s We L_l Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей b y o n e m e tr e . W e c a n f in d th e s iz e o f s o m e th in g b y m e a n s o f measurement. 9 va ry [ 'ѵ е э п ] v — м е н я т ь , и з м е н я т ь , в а р ь и р о в а т ь v a rio u s [ 'v e a r ia s ] adj — р а з л и ч н ы й , р а з н ы й , р а з н о о б ­ разн ы й v a r ie ty [ v a 'r a ia ti] n — р азн о о б р ази е S te e l v a rie s c o n s id e r a b ly in its m ic r o s tr u c tu r e . T h e d e m a n d f o r various b u ild in g m a te r ia ls is e n o r m o u s . A w id e variety o f m a s s p r o d u c e d e le m e n ts a r e n o w a v a ila b le . 10. m a in ta in [ m e i n 't e i n ] v — о б с л у ж и в а т ь , с о д е р ж а т ь в и с ­ п р ав н о сти , п од д ерж и вать, со х р ан ять, сод ер ж ать m a in te n a n c e [ 'm e i n t a n a n s ] п — уход, с о д ер ж ан и е в и с ­ правности, текущ ий рем онт, поддерж ка, содерж ание, сохранение to maintain. T h e s e o p e r a tio n s in v o lv e th e c o n s tr u c tio n , maintenance o f s tr u c tu r e s , g r o u n d s , a n d S o m e f lo o r m a te n a ls a re e a s y so o n . 11. stru ctu re ['strA k tJb ] n — конструкция, сооруж ение, стро­ ен и е, здани е, конструкция bu ild in g str u c tu r e — с т р о и т е л ь н а я к о н с т р у к ц и я , з д а н и е W ood structures w e r e v e ry c o m m o n in e a r lie r tim e s . T h e m o r e the building structure c o s ts . in s u la tio n w e p r o v id e , t h e m o r e 12. fo u n d a tio n [ f a u n 'd e i j n ] и — ф у н д а м е н т F ir s t t h e y la id the foundation, a n d t h e n t h e y b u ilt th e w a lls. 13. c o m p u te r -a id e d d e sig n (C A D ) [ k a m / p j u : t a ( r ) 'e i d i d ] — а в ­ то м ати зи р о в ан н о е п р о ек ти р о в ан и е T o d a y , t h e u se o f C o m p u te r - A id e d D e s ig n t e c h n i q u e s h a s r e v o lu tio n is e d d e sig n a n d c o n s tr u c tio n p ro c e sse s w ith in th e in d u stry . UNIT 1 . BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 14. fa c ility [ f a 's i l i t i ] h n — устройство, п р и сп особ лен и е, об о ­ (pi.) у с л о в и я , в о з м о ж н о с т и , рудовани е; со оруж ен и е; ср едства A new facility h a d b e e n b u ilt ju s t o u ts id e t h e c ity t o p r o c e s s a ll t h e s e w a g e . T h e n e w f a c to r y h a s e n a b le d t o b r in g r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t a c tiv itie s u n d e r t h e s a m e r o o f a s a ll p r o d u c t i o n facilities 15. perform [ р э Т з т а ] v — исп олн ять, вы п олн ять, соверш ать n — прои зводи тельн ость, эф ­ p e r fo r m a n c e [ p a 'f o m a n s ] ф екти вн ость, кпд; эксп луатац и он н ы е характеристи ки; работа They perform a c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n t o f b u ild in g w o r k a t t h e performance o f th e b e a m s. fa c to ry . T h is e n a b le s u s t o e n s u re th e g o o d 16. u tility [ ju :'tiliti] n — (pi.) и н ж е н е р н ы е с е т и ; к о м м у н а л ь ­ ны е у слуги ; к о м м у н а л ь н ы е п р е д п р и я т и я о б сл у ж и в ан и я (со о р у ж ен и я ) c o n se r v a tio n u tility [ .k o n s a 'v e i j n ] — у п р а в л е н и е п о о х р а ­ не п ри роды и р ац и о н ал ьн о го п р и р о д о п о л ьзо ван и я T h e in tr o d u c t i o n o f u r b a n 17. su r v e y [ 's a :v e i] [ s s 'v e i ] utilities im p r o v e d life in t h e c ity n v — топ о гр аф и ч еская съем ка (с л у ж б а ); п р о и з в о д и т ь т о п о г р а ф и ч е с к у ю с ъ е м к у , м е ж е ­ вать su r v e y in g п — съем ка, пром ер, картировани е п — гео д ези ст, м а р к ш е й д е р su r v e y o r [ s s 'v e i a ] Surveys a r e m a d e f o r m a n y p u r p o s e s , s u c h a s t h e d e te r m in a tio n to survey t h e p ie c e o f la n d t h a t t h e n e w m o to r w a y w ill p a s s t h r o u g h . Surveying is o f a r e a s , a n d t h e p lo ttin g o f m a p s . T h e y s t a r t e d e m p lo y e d t o m e a s u r e a n d lo c a te lin e s a n d a n g le s o n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r th . M a n y n e w i n s tr u m e n ts a r e e m p lo y e d t o f a c ilita te th e surveyor’s w o rk . 10JАнглийскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 18. ap p ly [ э 'р і а і ] ѵ — и с п о л ь з о в а т ь , п р и м е н я т ь a p p lied s c ie n c e [ 's a i a n s ] — п р и к л а д н а я н а у к а a p p lic a tio n [ ,a e p l i 'k e i j h ] n — п ри м ен ен и е, использо­ ван ие T h is b u ild in g m e t h o d is s u c c e s s fu lly a n d to w n s i n th is c o u n tr y . Application applied in d iff e r e n t c itie s o f p la s tic s in t h e b u ild in g fie ld w id e n s f r o m y e a r t o y e a r. 19. o p e r a te [ 'o p a r e i t ] v — р а б о т а т ь , п р и в о д и т ь в д е й с т в и е o p e r a tio n п — работа, T h e in s tr u m e n t w a s s e t operations o n о п ерац и я , эксп луатац и я to operate a t a c e r t a i n p re s s u re . A ll th e s ite a re m in im iz e d . 20 . r e n o v a te [ 'r e n a v e i t ] v — в о с с т а н а в л и в а т ь , в о з о б н о в л я т ь ren ovation [,г е п э и 'ѵ е і/п ] n— реконструкция, восстанов­ ление T he house was renovatedby th e c u rre n t o w n e rs t o p ro v id e m o d e m renovation. liv in g . T h e s ta d iu m is re - o p e n in g a fte r a t h r e e - y e a r 2. R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir tr a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e part o f sp eech . n, f u n c t i o n n, e ffe c t n, g lo b a l adj, m a n if e s ta tio n n, adj , p r o d u c e v, in te g ra te v, te c h n o lo g y n, d e s ig n n v, d is c ip lin e n, in te r d is c ip lin a r y adj, m a n a g e r n, m a n a g e m e n t n, o p e ra tio n n, tra d itio n a l adj, v e n tila tio n n, m e c h a n ic a l adj, a c o u stic s n, p ro je c t n, m e th o d o lo g y n, c y c le n, e f f ic ie n c y n, c a r e e r n, b u d g e t n v, lo g is tic s n, t e n d e r n, re s o u rc e n. A c tiv ity n a tu r a l и ш 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 11 3 . M a t c h th e p a ir s o f sy n o n y m s from A an d В and t r a n s la te th em . A В 1. r e p a ir a . im p a c t 2. o p e r a t i o n b. m e a n s 3. c o n s t r u c t i o n c . a p p lic a tio n 4 . a p p lia n c e d . fo u n d a tio n 5. r e s to r a tio n e . d iv e r s e 6. u se f. m a in te n a n c e 7. base g. p e rfo rm a n c e 8. w a y h . f a c ility 9. i n f lu e n c e i. b u i l d i n g 10. v a r io u s j . r e n o v a tio n 4 . M a t c h th e verb o n t h e le ft w ith a su ita b le ite m o n t h e rig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1. d o a. a n a i r - c o n d i t i o n e r 2. m e a s u r e b. a h o u se 3. in s ta ll c . u tility s e r v ic e s 4. c a rry o u t d . m a n a g e m e n t p r in c ip le s 5. b u ild e . t h e w in d o w s 6. tr a in f. m e a s u r e m e n ts 7. a p p ly g. a m o n g C A D s y s te m s 8. t a k e h . a c iv il e n g in e e r in g c o u r s e 9. p r o v id e i. a s a s u r v e y o r 10. v a ry j. b u ild in g d e s ig n 5. M a k e t h e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o m p le te b y tr a n sla tin g th e w o rd s a n d p h r a se s in b r a c k e ts. 1. T h e in v e n tiv e m o n ito r in g m e t h o d c o n s is ts m d e t e r m in in g lo a d s a p p lie d to ( с т р о и т е л ь н ы е к о н с т р у к ц и и ) . 2. T h e n e w o w n e r ilJ- Английский: [ДЛЯстудентовстроительныхспециальностей w a n ts t o ( р е к о н с т р у и р о в а т ь ) t h e b u ild in g h e b o u g h t. 3 . T h e b u ild in g e n g in e e r in g p r o g r a m m e is p r e s e n t e d ( п о с р е д с т в о м ) le c tu r e s , tu to r ia ls , s e m in a r s a n d c a s e s tu d ie s . 4 T h e c o m p a n y se e k s a b u ild in g e n g in e e r t o ( и с п о л ь з о в а т ь ) a n d ( о б с л у ж и в а т ь ) all b u ild in g e q u ip m e n t a n d sy ste m s. 5. A d e g re e c o u r s e in ( п р о е к ­ т и р о в а н и е з д а н и й и с о о р у ж е н и й ) t a k e s f o u r y e a r s in t h e U K . 6. T h e c ity e n g in e e r ( п р о и з в е л т о п о г р а ф и ч е с к у ю с ъ е м к у ) t h e p r o p e r ty t o a m e n d th e m a p . 7. F o r p e o p le in te r e s te d i n t h e m a n y w e ll- p a y in g c a r e e r s in ( д о м о с т р о е н и е ) , th is a s s o c ia tio n o ffe rs n u m e r o u s e d u c a tio n a l a n d c a r e e r re so u rc e s. 8. T h is c o u r s e p ro v id e s s tu d e n ts w ith a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f а ( р а з н о ­ о б р а з и е ) o f m a te r ia ls u s e d in b u ild in g . 9. T h e c o m p a n y h ir e d a c o n t r a c t o r to ( в ы п о л н и т ь ) c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k o n a n e w b u ild in g . 10. W h a t d o e s th e te r m utility ( з н а ч и т ь ) 9 6. R e a d a n d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g w ord c o m b in a tio n s w h ich c o m e fro m th e te x ts o f th e U n it. M in d th e u se o f n o u n s a s a ttr ib u te s in p r e p o sitio n . L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . Example a ) a r c h b u ild in g — а р о ч н о е з д а н и е b ) m a r k e t b u ild in g — з д а н и е р ы н к а c ) e x h ib itio n b u ild in g — з д а н и е д л я в ы с т а в к и P o w e r d is tr ib u tio n , i n d o o r a i r q u a lity , p r o je c t m a n a g e m e n t , c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e m e n t, d e s ig n e n g in e e r , c o s t e n g in e e r , p r o c e s s e n g in e e r, H V A C (h e a tin g , v e n tila tio n a n d a ir- c o n d itio n in g ) e n g in e e r, fa c ility m a n a g e r, o p e r a tio n m a n a g e r, c o m p u te r p r o g r a m m in g , t h e life c y c le o f a b u ild in g , e n e r g y e f f ic ie n c y , c o n t r o l s y s te m s , e a r t h q u a k e r e s i s t a n c e , w in d e f f e c ts , c a r e e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , s o il m e c h a n i c s , b u i l d i n g s e r v ic e s y s te m s , c r a f t tr a d itio n s , m a te r ia l p r o p e r tie s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e , s a fe ty s ta n d a r d s , s ite s a f e ty , c o n s tr u c tio n d e la y s , c o n s t r u c t i o n te c h n o lo g ie s , te n d e r d o c u m e n ts , q u a lity c o n tr o l, b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c t, lo c a l b u ild in g a u th o r ity r e g u la tio n s , h ig h w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n , o n a p e r s q u a r e m e tr e ( f o o t) b a sis. UNIT 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 7. 13 S tu d y t h e fo llo w in g p a t t e r n s sh o w in g t h e w a y s s o m e n o u n s a r e fo rm e d fro m v e rb s . C o m p le te th e c h a r t s . S o m e o f t h e m is s in g w o rd s a r e f ro m t h e t e x t s o f t h e U n it. R e a d a n d t r a n s l a t e th e m in to R u s s ia n . U se y o u r d ic tio n a ry to h e lp y o u w ith th e p r o n u n c ia tio n . Pattern 1 I V e rb + - e r / - o r —> N o u n | T h e - e r / - o r su ffix e s a re u s e d fo r a p e r s o n w h o d o e s a n a c tiv ity a n d f o r th in g s w h ic h d o a p a r t i c u l a r jo b . Example, b u ild — с т р о и т ь - > b u ild e r — с т р о и т е л ь Verb Noun m anage ______________________ c o m p u te ______________________ d ire c t ______________________ d e s ig n ______________________ su rv e y ______________________ c o n tra c t ______________________ ele v a te ______________________ I V e rb + - m e n t —> N o u n T h e - m e n t s u ffix is u s e d f o r a n a c t o r r e s u lt o f s o m e th in g . Example, a c h ie v e — д о с т и г а т ь —> a c h ie v e m e n t — д о с т и ж е н и е Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 2ІІ Verb Noun m anage -------------------- e n v ir o n -------------------- d e v e lo p -------------------- a rra n g e -------------------- e sta b lish -------------------- im p ro v e -------------------- e le v a te -------------------- Pattern 3 V e rb + - i o n / - a t i o n / - i t i o n / - s i o n / - t i o n - » N o u n T h e - io n / - a t i o n / - M o n / - s i o n / - t i o n su ffix e s a re u s e d f o r a n a c t, s ta te , o r re s u lt o f s o m e th in g . Example: c o n s tru c t — с т р о и т ь c o n s tr u c tio n — с т р о и т е л ь ­ ство Verb Noun e d u c a te ______________________ m a n ife s t ______________________ re n o v a te ______________________ fo u n d ______________________ in te g ra te ______________________ v e n tila te ______________________ d is trib u te ______________________ d e c id e ______________________ e x e c u te ______________________ o p e ra te _________________ _ UNIT 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION lii SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8 . A rran ge th e s e w ord s in th e r ig h t o r d e r . U s e a c a p ita l le tte r to b e g in e a c h s e n te n c e . M a r k e a c h re w r itte n s e n t e n c e S V Q M P T t o sh o w S u b je c t, V erb , O b je c t, M a n n e r ( H o w ? ) , P la c e (W h e r e ? ), T im e (W h e n ? ). Example w o r k e d , till 5 o ’c lo c k , P e te r , a t t h e p l a n t . — ( S ) P e t e r (V ) w o r k e d ( P ) a t th e p l a n t (T ) till 5 o ’c lo c k . 1. w e ll, I , E n g lis h , s p e a k . 2 . b e g in s , in S e p te m b e r , m y te r m . 3. u s e , fo r m a n y , s c ie n tis ts , c o m p u te r s , d iffe re n t p u rp o s e s . 4 . a n o ld , m a th e m a tic s , s c ie n c e , is. 5. f r o m t h e u n iv e r s ity , w ill, a n e n g in e e r , h e , b e , a f te r g r a d u a tio n . 6 . t h e k n o w le d g e o f , t o d a y , is, v e r y , E n g lis h , i m p o r t a n t . 7 . b e g i n , a t 9 o ’c l o c k , i n t h e m o r n in g , t h e le c tu r e s . 8. to m o r r o w , w ill, in R o m e , b e , s h e . 9. e v e ry , y e a r , le a v e , s c h o o ls , m illio n s o f, s e c o n d a r y , c h ild r e n . 10. t h e te r m , a tte n d , d u r in g , a n d , l e c tu r e s , s e m in a r s , s tu d e n ts . 11. a c o tta g e , in th e s u b u r b s , c o n s t r u c t e d , o f M o s c o w , th e y . 12. s ta tis tic a l, in t h e i r w o r k , u s e , th e r e s e a r c h e r s , m e th o d s . 9 . R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g c o m p le x s e n t e n c e s w ith d iffe r e n t ty p e s o f su b o r d in a te c la u s e s . U s e y o u r d ic tio n a r y if 1. T e c h n i c a l o c c u p a tio n s r e q u ir e m o r e t r a in in g a s a g r e a te r t e c h n i c a l k n o w le d g e is r e q u ir e d . 2 . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o lle g e s o f f e r a s p e c ia liz e d l e a r n in g e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s tu d e n ts w h o w a n t t o le a r n h o w t o u n d e r s ta n d b a s ic c o n c e p ts a b o u t b u ild in g p ro c e s s e s . 3. T h e in d u s tr y e x p e r ts h a v e p r e d ic te d t h a t t h e r e w ill b e m o r e t h a n 4 5 ,0 0 0 n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n jo b s i n S c o tla n d o v e r t h e n e x t d e c a d e . 4 . I n th e fie ld s o f a r c h ite c tu r e a n d c iv il e n g in e e n n g , c o n s tr u c tio n is a p ro c e s s 16 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. 5. That this type of cables must be placed correctly is essential. 6. Once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction companies may be asked to make a bid for the work. 7. A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully considered. 8. Construction managers may travel considerably when they are responsible for activities at many sites. 9. Although the construction work is not dangerous, injuries can occur. 10. What is important is the correct sequence of building operations. 10. Read and translate the following complex sentences with relative clauses in which the relative conjunctions are left out. Example I haven’t seen the fax we received this morning. — Я не видел факс, который мы получили сегодня утром. 1. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfil the function they are designed for. 2. There are lots of different types of engineering. The one thing they have in common is that they use Maths and Science to improve industry and manufacturing. 3. The report he made after the delegation had visited our plant shows that he has finally realized the importance of the work we are doing here. 4. The noise I heard was caused by the arrival of the lorries with new products. 5. The way the weight of the components of concrete is determined is specified by the requirements of the project and the various local building codes and regulations. 6. The type of houses the constructors were building was part of the great construction boom. UNIT 1 . BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 17 11. In some of these sentences you don’t need who, which or that. If you don’t need these words, put them in brackets like this: (who), (which), (that). Example The job that he got wasn’t very interesting, (that can be left out) The people who work in the office are highly skilled experts, (who is necessary here) 1. The technique that they used in structures was worked out by the design team. 2. A number of advantages that ceramic tiles offer to builders make them an attractive proposition. 3. Prospects will be best for people who have a bachelor or higher degree in construction science. 4. The students who we met at the construction site were having practical training. 5. Different plastics which architects use for decorative purposes include glass fibre. 12. Read and translate the following emphatic sentences it is that/which/who into Russian. Example It is the data that (which) are reliable. — Именно эти данные являются надежными. 1. It is this method that speeds up construction work. 2. It is the college which offers a course in building construction. 3. It was Lomonosov who first discovered the law of conservation of energy. 4. It is only by performing a lot of experiments that progress can be made. 5. It is the construction management course that covers several areas of construction science and basic business practices. 18 Английский языкдля студентов строительных специальностей SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. Before you read Text 1A “Building Engineering as a Discipline” , discuss these questions with your groupmates or teacher. a) Do you know how building construction began? b) Is there any difference between civil engineering and building engineering? c) Is building engineering a big subject? d) Why is building engineering very important in modem life? e) What building engineering courses are usually taught at higher educational institutions? f) What degrees do building engineering academic programmes provide? 14. Read Text 1A to find out if your answers are right or wrong. The following phases may be helpful: Quite so. Exactly. I t’s (partly) true. Just the opposite. I don’t think so. That’s right. That’s wrong. • TEXT 1A Building Engineering as a Discipline Building construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate. Constructed shelters were one means by which human beings were able to adapt themselves to a wide variety of climates and become a global species. Building construction today is a significant part of industrial culture, a manifestation of its diversity and complexity and a measure of its mastery of natural forces, which can produce a widely UNIT 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 19 varied built environment to serve the diverse needs of society. Education in the field o f Building Engineering as one of the areas of civil engineering is the study o f th e integrated a p p lic a tio n o f en g in eerin g principles and technology to building design and architecture. Institution of Civil B uilding en g in eerin g is an Engineering headquarters in interdisciplinary engineering London subject that offers a general engineering approach to the planning, design, construction, operation, renovation, and maintenance of buildings, as well as with their impacts on the surrounding environment. The discipline requires pertinent knowledge integrated from traditional wellestablished disciplines: civil engineering for building structures and foundation; mechanical engineering for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning system (HVAC), and for mechanical service systems; physics for building science, lighting and acoustics; electrical engineering for power distribution and control; chemistry and biology for indoor air quality; architecture for form, function and specifications; economics for project management. Building engineering students are ideally trained in all phases of the life cycle of a building, and learn to appreciate buildings as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components. Technical problems and appropriate solutions are studied to improve the performance of the building in areas, such as energy efficiency, construction management, HVAC and control systems, advanced building materials, earthquake resistance, wind effects on buildings, computer-aided design. The building engineering graduate may work as a consulting engineer, design engineer, project manager, construction manager, cost engineer, facility manager, conservation-utility director, 20 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей HVAC engineer, operation manager, process engineer, or in research and development, among other career possibilities. Building engineering academic programmes normally provide an accredited academic degree. The completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology or Bachelor of Applied Science depending upon the university or institute. The length of study is four years and the programme consists of basics of engineering and sciences (technical drawing, engineering m echanics, m echanics o f materials, thermodynamics, mathematics, computer programming, surveying), subjects in building engineering sciences (structural analysis and design, soil mechanics, building engineering systems, building econom ics, co n stru ctio n m anagem ent, therm al environment and building service systems). In some programmes, elective courses allow students to specialize in one or more sub­ disciplines. Graduates may pursue a postgraduate degree, such as a Master of Engineering, Master of Applied Science, an Engineer’s degree, or a Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering. The Master and Engineer’s degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and it is often viewed as the entry point to academia. 15. Find in Text 1A the paragraph about the areas in which building engineering graduates may work and translate it into Russian. 16. Read aloud paragraph 3. 17. Explain the following references. a) Building construction today is a significant part of industrial culture, a manifestation of its diversity and complexity and a measure of its mastery of natural forces. What does the pronoun its refer to? UNIT 1 . BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 21 b) Building engineering is an interdisciplinary engineering discipline that offers a general engineering approach to the planning, design, construction, operation, renovation, and maintenance of buildings, as well as with their impacts on the surrounding environment. What does the pronoun their refer to? c) Building engineering students are ideally trained in all phases of the life cycle of a building, and learn to appreciate buildings as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components. What does the pronoun their refer to? d) The Master and Engineer’s degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. What are those two? e) The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and it is often viewed as the entry point to academia. What does the pronoun it refer to? 18. Underline or mark the main ideas of Text 1A and retell it in English. 19. Skim Text IB “History of the Building Industry” and try to understand what it is about. Give a brief overview of its structure and contents. • TEXT IB History of the Building Industry In early times there were few specialist builders. People constructed their homes from whatever material was available where they lived. The only large buildings were communal ones such as granaries and places of worship for their gods. In ancient Egypt, Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей Greece, and Rome, large buildings were financed by the rulers of the country and built by slaves who had been captured in battle. Stone was used if it was available and where it was not, brick­ making industry developed. After the end of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD there was very little large-scale building done in Europe for about six hundred years. There were two kinds of buildings other than cottages and farm buildings: castles and churches. Building a cathedral was such a vast undertaking that someone was required to organize all the craftsmen needed for the work. This was usually a master stonemason. At the time of the Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries a new sort of building specialist emerged. He was usually a philos­ opher or artist, rather than a craftsman, who would get together a team of building workers and make arrangements to pay them. This was the beginning of the profession of architecture. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century brought to an end the craft tra d itio n s in building. Many new functional buildings were put up in the big towns that were developing — buildings that were not planned to be beautiful but were there to Building construction for house machinery and the workers several apartment blocks who operated it. They had to be built quickly and cheaply. The building materials were brought across the country on the new canals and railways that were quickly constructed to get the raw materials for industry and the finished products to the places where they were needed. When the railways were built, tunnels were dug, and bridges, aqueducts, and roads were built. New materials such as steel were introduced and engineers were trained to use them. Advances in science meant that building designers could calculate in advance UNIT 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 23 how a building should be constructed to ensure that it would stand up, instead of relying on a system of trial and error, for it sometimes happened that a building would collapse while it was being built. It was important to calculate accurately the cost of materials and labour, and there came to be so much competition for doing the work that a system of tendering developed. Different contractors would calculate what it would cost to complete a project and then the lowest estimate would be chosen. The quantity surveyor emerged in the late 19th century as a professional specialist in building finance, who could accurately predict the cost of a project. In the late 19th century, all kinds o f new technological developments alfected the building industry. The emergence of the skyscraper in Chicago, United States, was made possible not only by the use of steel framing in the structure, but also by the invention of the elevator, the telephone, and air conditioning. The present state of building construction is complex. There is a wide range of building products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types or markets. The design process for buildings is highly organized and draws upon research establishments that study material properties and performance, code officials who adopt and enforce safely standards, and design professionals who determine user needs and design a building to meet those needs. The construction process is also highly organized; it includes the manufacturers of building products and systems, the craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, the contractors who employ and coordinate the work o f the craftsmen, and consultants who specialize in such aspects as construction management, quality control, and insurance. 20. Identify the topic of each paragraph o f Text IB . 2 1 . C om plete the sen tences choosing the best variant corresponding to the contents of Text IB . 24 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 1) In early times people constructed their homes from a) stone available. b) any material available. c) bricks. 2) At the time of the Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries a new sort of building specialist was a) a master stonemason. b) a craftsman. c) an artist. 3) In the 19th century advances in science meant that a) a system of trial and error was relied on. b) design calculations were introduced. c) new materials began to be used. 4) The construction of the skyscraper was made possible by a) the use of steel framing, the invention of the elevator, the telephone, and air conditioning. b) the use of steel framing. c) the invention of the elevator and air conditioning. 5) Now the construction process is highly organized because a) it includes the manufacturers of building products. b) it involves design professionals. c) it involves different sorts of building experts. 22. Read Text 1C “Construction Projects” and answer the following questions. Discuss your answers with your groupmates. a) What does a construction process involve? b) What is required for the successful execution of a construction project? c) How many types of construction are there? d) Who ensures positive end results of construction projects? UNIT 1 . BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 25 e) Why can the cost of construction vary? f) What is the negative outcome of residential construction? g) What are the new methods of construction characterized by? h) Why is industrial construction a very important part of the construction industry? • TEXT 1C Construction Projects In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of multitasking. Normally the job is managed by the project manager and supervised by the construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or project architect. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential. Those involved with the design and execution of the infrastructure in question must consider the environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, site safety, availability of materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays, preparing tender documents, etc. In general, there are two types of construction: building construction and industrial construction. Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct, and maintain the project. Building construction is the process of adding structure f1 to real property. The vast majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. The owner of the property often acts as labourer, paymaster, and Construction on a building in Kansas City design team for the entire ♦ 4 • •- -fr—«fro—. 26 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей p ro je c t. H o w e v e r, a ll b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n p ro je c ts in c lu d e s o m e e le m e n ts in c o m m o n — d e s ig n , fin a n c ia l, a n d le g a l c o n s id e ra tio n s . M a n y p ro je c ts o f v a ry in g siz e s re a c h u n d e s ir a b le e n d re s u lts , s u c h a s s tru c tu ra l c o lla p s e , c o s t o v e rru n s , a n d / o r litig a tio n re a s o n . T h o s e w ith e x p e r ie n c e i n t h e fie ld m a k e d e t a ile d p la n s a n d m a in ta in c a re fu l o v e rs ig h t d u r in g t h e p ro je c t t o e n s u re a p o s itiv e o u tc o m e . R e sid e n tia l c o n s tru c tio n te c h n o lo g ie s a n d reso u rc e s m u s t c o n fo rm t o lo c a l b u ild in g a u th o r ity r e g u la tio n s a n d c o d e s o f p r a c tic e . M a t e r i a l s r e a d ily a v a ila b le in t h e a r e a g e n e r a l l y d i c t a t e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a te r ia ls u s e d (e .g . b r ic k v e rs u s s to n e o r tim b e r ) . T h e c o s t o f c o n s tr u c tio n o n a p e r s q u a r e m e tr e b a s is f o r h o u s e s c a n v a ry d ra m a tic a lly b a s e d o n s ite c o n d itio n s , lo c a l r e g u la tio n s , e c o n o m ie s o f s c a le ( c u s to m d e s ig n e d h o m e s a re a lw a y s m o r e e x p e n s iv e t o b u i l d ) a n d t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s k ille d w o r k e r s . R e s id e n tia l a n d a ll o t h e r ty p e s o f c o n s tr u c tio n c a n g e n e ra te a lo t o f w a s te , c a re fu l p la n n in g is n e e d e d a g a in h e re . T h e p o p u l a r m e t h o d o f r e s id e n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S ta te s is w o o d f ra m e d c o n s tru c tio n . A s e ffic ie n c y c o d e s h a v e c o m e in to e ffe c t in r e c e n t y e a rs , n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n o lo g ie s a n d m e th o d s h a v e e m e rg e d . U n iv e rs ity C o n s t r u c t i o n M a n a g e m e n t d e p a r tm e n ts a re o n th e c u ttin g e d g e o f t h e n e w e s t m e th o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in te n d e d t o im p ro v e e ffic ie n c y , p e r f o r m a n c e a n d re d u c e c o n s tr u c tio n w a ste . I n d u s tr ia l c o n s tr u c tio n , th o u g h a re la tiv e ly s m a ll p a r t o f th e e n tir e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y , is a v e ry i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t . O w n e rs o f th e s e p r o je c ts a re u s u a lly la rg e , f o r - p r o f it, in d u s tria l c o r p o r a tio n s . T h e s e c o r p o r a tio n s c a n b e f o u n d in s u c h in d u s tr ie s a s m e d ic in e , p e tr o le u m , c h e m ic a l, m a n u f a c tu r in g , e tc . P ro c e s s e s in t h e s e in d u s trie s r e q u ire h ig h ly s p e c ia liz e d e x p e rtis e in p la n n in g , d e s ig n , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . A s in b u ild in g a n d h e a v y /h ig h w a y c o n s tru c tio n , th is ty p e o f c o n s tru c tio n re q u ire s a t e a m o f in d iv id u a ls t o e n s u r e a s u c c e s s fu l p r o je c t. Предисловие 27 SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 2 3 . L is te n to th e T e x t “ B u ild in g s: F ir st I m p r e s s io n s ” . Study the following commentary: H a m p t o n C o u r t P a la c e — д в о р е ц с п а р к о м н а б е р е г у р е к и Т е м з ы б л и з Л о н д о н а , к о р о л е в с к а я р е з и д е н ц и я д о 17 6 0 г. a ) A n sw er th e q u e stio n s th a t fo llo w . 1. W h a t is th e m o s t s tr ik in g f e a tu r e o f B r itis h t o w n s a n d c itie s ? 2. W h a t d o e s a B r itis h in d iv id u a l h o u s e lo o k lik e ? 3 H o w d o y o u u n d e r s ta n d th e E n g lis h p r o v e r b : “ A n E n g lis h m a n ’s h o m e is h is c a s tle ” ? 4 . W h e n d id c o u n c ils s ta r t b u ild in g b lo c k s o f f la ts? 5. A r e b lo c k s o f f la ts p o p u l a r in B r ita in ? 6. W h a t is th e f a v o u r ite b u ild in g m a te r ia l in B n t a i n to d a y ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 1A o f th e T e x t . L o o k up th e w ord s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a r y . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t ab o u t so m e fe a tu r e s o f B r itish b u ild in g s. d ) T e ll y o u r g r o u p m a te s ab o u t th e b lo c k o f f l a t s /t h e p riv a te h o u se y o u live in . 2 4 . L iste n to th e T e x t “ S o m e T ren d s in th e H isto r y o f B u ild in g” a b o u t th e ev o lu tio n o f d w ellin g s an d a n u m b er o f tr e n d s o f th e h isto r y o f building. a ) A s y o u lis te n , fill in th e c h a r t. T h e first t r e n d T h e seco n d tren d T h e th ird tre n d T h e f o u r th t r e n d 28 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей b ) C h e c k you r a n sw e r s w ith yo u r g r o u p m a te s and T a p e sc r ip t I B o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w ord s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t. UNIT 2 GREAT CIVIL ENGINEERS SECTION 1 Ш VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1. R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e t h e a c tiv e v o c a b u la r y to t h e t e x t “ V la d im ir G . S h u k h o v ” a n d t r a n s l a t e th e g iv e n s e n te n c e s . 1. to w e r [ Ч а и э ] n— б аш н я; н еб о скр еб, вы со тн о е здани е b r o a d c a s tin g to w e r [ 'b r a d k a i s t i p ] — р а д и о б а ш н я T h e E iffe l Tower is a n 1889 i r o n tower lo c a te d in P a r is t h a t h a s b e c o m e o n e o f t h e m o s t re c o g n iz a b le s tr u c tu r e s in th e w o rld . T h e r e a r e o v e r 4 ,0 0 0 ro w e r b lo c k s , h o m e s f o r a b o u t 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le . 2. f la n k [flaeijk] v — р а с п о л а г а т ь п о б о к а м , п р и м ы к а т ь T h e c e n tr a l s t r e e t isflanked b y n— 3 . c u r v e [к э: v] кривая; закругление T h e w e ig h t is d is tr ib u te d a lo n g n 4 . r o o f [ ru :f] ro o fe r п— T h e c o n c r e te Roofers w o rk 5. s t r e s s tw o s l e n d e r o c ta g o n a l to w e r s . the curve o f t h e a rc h . — кры ш а, кровля, кровельное покры тие кровельщ ик ro o fo i t h e n e w f o u r - s to r e y b u ild in g w a s p u t o n . o u td o o rs a n d a t h e ig h ts, a n d u se la d d e rs a n d scaffo ld in g . n— (м ех ан и ч еск о е) н а п р я ж е н и е B u ild in g d e s ig n e r s h a v e t o k n o w a b o u t stress. 30 j Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 6 . d eform [d i'fo :m ] v — д е ф о р м и р о в а т ь ( с я ) , к о р о б и т ь ( с я ) d efo rm a tio n п — деф орм ация H e a t deforms p l a s tic s . T h e a m o u n t a n d c h a r a c t e r o f the deformations a re c o n n e c t e d w ith t h e c h e m ic a l c o m p o s itio n a n d p h y s ic a l s tru c tu r e o f e n g in e e r in g m a te ria ls . 7 . b ea m [b i:m ] n — балка str a ig h t b ea m [ s t r e i t ] — п р я м а я б а л к а Beams a re v e ry im p o r t a n t m e m b e r s i n m a n y s tru c tu re s . 8 . s h e ll n — оболочка, каркас, обш и вка grid (la ttic e ) s h e ll [ laetis] — с е т ч а т а я (р е ш е т ч а т а я ) о б о ­ лочка shell o f th e grid shells b e c a m e m o r e p o p u l a r n e w s o lu tio n s w e re A fte r th e fire , a ll t h a t w a s le ft w a s t h e b u r n e d - o u t b u ild in g . A s d e v e lo p e d in te r m s o f c h o ic e o f m a te ria l. T h e S h u k h o v T o w e r e x p e rie n c e s m in im u m w in d l o a d d u e t o its lattice shell s tr u c tu r e . 9. m etal stru ctu re — м е т а л л и ч е с к а я к о н с т р у к ц и я The metal structures o f t h e b u ild in g w e re a s s e m b le d o n th e site . 10. c a u s e [k a:z] v — б ы т ь п р и ч и н о й , в ы з ы в а т ь U n s a tis fa c to ry o rg a n iz a tio n o f w o rk 11 te n s ile [ 't e n s a i l ] causes d e la y s. adj — р а б о т а ю щ и й н а р а с т я ж е н и е A n e a r th q u a k e m a y m o v e th e a r c h a n d c a u s e 12. s to r e y [ 's to :r i] tensile fo rc e s i n it. n — этаж A ll b u ild in g s o f t h e f a c to r y w e re tw o -storey b u ild in g s . 13. n v — свод; возводи ть свод n — свод, возвед ен и е свода v a u lt [v o :lt] v a u ltin g UNIT 2. GREAT CIVIL ENGINEERS 31 g la s s v a u ltin g — с т е к л я н н ы й с в о д h ig h -p itc h v a u ltin g — в ы с о к и й с в о д The vault a n d t h e d o m e w e re e v o lv e d i n t h e E a s t. T h e c e n t e r p ie c e o f th is larg e c o m p le x is a fiv e -sto re y b r ic k h o u s e w ith in te rn a lly c a s t- ir o n c o lu m n s a n d b r ic k 14. vaulting. c o n c r e t e [ 'k o r ) k r i:t] nadj — б е т о н ; б е т о н н ы й Concrete is c a p a b le o f w ith s ta n d in g h ig h te m p e r a tu r e s . 15. tr u ss [trA s] n — ф ерм а s te e l tr u ss — с т а л ь н а я ф е р м а I t is n e c e s s a r y t o p la c e trusses t o c a r r y t h e e n d s o f t h e b e a m s . 16. h igh risin g ( r is e ) bu ild in g [ 'r a i z i g ] — в ы с о т н о е з д а н и е A high-rise building is d e f in e d a s a b u ild in g 35 m e te r s o r g r e a te r in h e ig h t, w h ic h is d iv id e d in to o c c u p ia b le le v e ls. 17 in n o v a tio n [ .m a u 'v e i j n ] n — н ововведен и е, н овш ество b rin g in n o v a tio n s — в в о д и т ь н о в ш е с т в а in n o v a tiv e [ 'in a v e i t i v ] adj — н о в а т о р с к и й , п е р е д о в о й T h e n e w s y s te m i n t h e u n iv e r s ity c a n t e e n w a s a w e lc o m e innovation. S o m e innovations were brought t o c o n s t r u c t i o n . A n u m b e r o f innovative fa 3 a d e s y s te m s a r e a v a ila b le i n c lu d in g c o m p o s ite p a n e ls . 18. d e v e lo p [ d i 'v e t a p ] v — р а з р а б а т ы в а т ь , р а з в и в а т ь d e v e lo p m e n t n — р азв и ти е, р азр аб о тка; заст р о й к а has been developed w h ic h is s u ita b le f o r b o t h in s id e developed in t o a v e r y la r g e c ity . H e h a d s o m e im p o r t a n t developments in b u i ld in g c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e n e w development m o d if ie s a n e x is tin g e n v ir o n m e n t. A la m in a te a n d o u ts id e u s e . I t h a s ill Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 19 support Isa'po-.t] ( i v - опора, поддерж ивать, подпирать A simple beam is one that lies on two supports at the ends Beams are used to support floors in buildings 20 locate [lau'keit] v — располагать, назначать м есто (syn.) place v — пом ещ ать, разм ещ ать T he entrance to the house is located on the south side. T he UNIT 2. GREATCIVILENGINEERS 33 4. M atch the noun(s) on the left with a suitable item on the right. U se each item once only. 1. A roofer a. changes an object. 2. A broadcasting tow er b. is sem icircular in shape. 3 D eform ation c. carry loads 4. A steel truss d. brought innovations. 5. A vault e. w ere erected. fram es are placed betw een end walls and spaced at 3 m etre centres. 6. A grid shell part of speech. 10. M etal structures f. sends radio and TV signals. 7. T he construction com pany g. developed ro o f system s. 2. Read aud translate the following international words. Look 8. Steel beam s h. builds and repairs roofs. op their transcriptions in the dictionary if necessary. M ind the 9. V .G . S hukhov l. was pioneered by Shukhov. A rchitect n, analysis я, industrial adj, innovation n, gallery n, hyperboloid я, hyperbolic adj, calculation я, m em brane я, optim al adj, theoretical adj, reservoir я, baige я, protection я, transmission я, cyhndncal adj, elite adj, arch я, arcade я, term inal я, onginally adv, gigantic adj, parabola n, grandiose adj, rotation я. 3. them. j. com prises triangular units. 5. R eplace the underlined words with the words below. a) flank b) ro o f c) support d) shell e) storey f) vaulting g) truss h) cause j) innovation i) place M atch the pairs of antonyms from A and В and translate 1 O nly the fram ew ork o f the building stood after the fire. 2 T he w ooden beam s form a rigid structure to support a roof. 3 The survey exam ined the im pact o f current m odernization w ithin A В the construction industry. 4. T hey installed a protective covering 1. im prove a. high rising building that form s the top o f the building. 5. T hey m anaged to solve the 2 ngid b. innovative technical aspects o f dom ing th at building. 6. Laige beam s b ear the 3. low rising building c. high-pitch vaulting dam aged wall. 7. This approach m ay lead to the im provem ent in 4 straight d. deform construction planning and m anagem ent. 8. H otels and room ing 5 solid e. developm ent houses still fine the streets in this tow n. 9. T hey decided to locate 6 regressive f. tensile 7 stoppage g. curve 8. low -pitch vaulting h. lattice a new co n stru ctio n site ju st 30 m iles from the city centre. 10. M any firm s are likely to consider renovating o r constructing m u lti-floor buildings. ill Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 19 support Isa'po-.t] ( i v - опора, поддерж ивать, подпирать A simple beam is one that lies on two supports at the ends Beams are used to support floors in buildings 20 locate [lau'keit] v — располагать, назначать м есто (syn.) place v — пом ещ ать, разм ещ ать T he entrance to the house is located on the south side. T he UNIT 2. GREATCIVILENGINEERS 33 4. M atch the noun(s) on the left with a suitable item on the right. U se each item once only. 1. A roofer a. changes an object. 2. A broadcasting tow er b. is sem icircular in shape. 3 D eform ation c. carry loads 4. A steel truss d. brought innovations. 5. A vault e. w ere erected. fram es are placed betw een end walls and spaced at 3 m etre centres. 6. A grid shell part of speech. 10. M etal structures f. sends radio and TV signals. 7. T he construction com pany g. developed ro o f system s. 2. Read aud translate the following international words. Look 8. Steel beam s h. builds and repairs roofs. op their transcriptions in the dictionary if necessary. M ind the 9. V .G . S hukhov l. was pioneered by Shukhov. A rchitect n, analysis я, industrial adj, innovation n, gallery n, hyperboloid я, hyperbolic adj, calculation я, m em brane я, optim al adj, theoretical adj, reservoir я, baige я, protection я, transmission я, cyhndncal adj, elite adj, arch я, arcade я, term inal я, onginally adv, gigantic adj, parabola n, grandiose adj, rotation я. 3. them. j. com prises triangular units. 5. R eplace the underlined words with the words below. a) flank b) ro o f c) support d) shell e) storey f) vaulting g) truss h) cause j) innovation i) place M atch the pairs of antonyms from A and В and translate 1 O nly the fram ew ork o f the building stood after the fire. 2 T he w ooden beam s form a rigid structure to support a roof. 3 The survey exam ined the im pact o f current m odernization w ithin A В the construction industry. 4. T hey installed a protective covering 1. im prove a. high rising building that form s the top o f the building. 5. T hey m anaged to solve the 2 ngid b. innovative technical aspects o f dom ing th at building. 6. Laige beam s b ear the 3. low rising building c. high-pitch vaulting dam aged wall. 7. This approach m ay lead to the im provem ent in 4 straight d. deform construction planning and m anagem ent. 8. H otels and room ing 5 solid e. developm ent houses still fine the streets in this tow n. 9. T hey decided to locate 6 regressive f. tensile 7 stoppage g. curve 8. low -pitch vaulting h. lattice a new co n stru ctio n site ju st 30 m iles from the city centre. 10. M any firm s are likely to consider renovating o r constructing m u lti-floor buildings. I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 34 6 . R ea d and tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g grou p s o f s e n te n c e s pa y in g a tte n tio n to th e w o rd s in ita lic s w h ich c a n fu n ctio n a s a noun and a verb , o r a verb and an a d je c tiv e , o r a noun an d a n a d jectiv e, w ith th e sa m e fo rm . T h e y c a n h a v e sim ila r o r d ifferen t m ea n in g s. L o o k up yo u r d ictio n a ry if n e c e s s a r y . 1. a. D id t h e s p e a k e r stress th e n e e d fo r b e t t e r e d u c a tio n ? Stress c a n le a d to t h e b u ild in g c o lla p s in g . stress o n m o n e y a n d p o s itio n . a. H e m e n t i o n e d t h e cause o f s tr u c tu r a l fa ilu re . b . T h e s e fa c ts cause a n in c re a s e i n t h e s p a n o f t h e b e a m . c. D o n ’t s ta y a w a y w ith o u t g o o d cause. a. T h e y s h o u ld concrete t h e g a r d e n p a th . b . T h is c a u s e d t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e concrete flo o r. c. T h e w a lk w a s p a v e d w ith concrete. a. Beams o f lig h t p e n e t r a t e d th e d a rk n e s s . b . T h e tr a n s m itte r beams r a d io w av es all o v e r t h e c o u n try . c. A f r a m e c o n s i s t s o f beams a n d c o l u m n s w i t h b. c. T h e y p la c e t o o m u c h 2. 3. 4. fo u n d a tio n . 5. a. V a rio u s m a te r ia ls c a n b e u s e d t o c o n s tr u c t a w a te r tower. b . T h e h ig h m o u n ta in s tower o v e r t h e little to w n . c. P ile s w e re d riv e n f o r a p l a tf o r m t o s u p p o r t a tower c ra n e . 7 . S tu d y th e fo llo w in g p a tte r n s sh o w in g th e w a y s so m e n o u n s are form ed from verbs and a d jectiv es, and so m e adverbs are form ed from a d jectiv es. C o m p lete th e c h a r ts. S o m e o f th e m issin g w ord s a re from th e te x ts o f th e U n it. R ea d and tr a n sla te th em in to R u ssia n . U s e y o u r d ictio n a ry to h elp yo u w ith th e p r o n u n cia tio n . Pattern 4 I V e rb /A d je c tiv e + - a n c e /- e n c e - » N o u n T h e - a n c e /- e n c e su ffix es a re u s e d f o r a n a c tio n , o r q u a lity o f s o m e th in g | UNIT Example, 2.GREATCIVILENGINEERS a c c e p t - п р и н и м а т ь - > a c c e p ta n c e — п р и н я т и е dep en d — зави сеть - » depen d en ce — зав и си м о сть Verb/Adjective Noun resist appear e le g a n t abundant im p o r ta n t ex ist occur absent c o n v e n ie n t d iffe re n t Pattern 5 V e rb + - u r e - > N o u n T h e - u r e su ffix is u s e d f o r a n a c t o r c o n d i t i o n o f s o m e th in g . Example, Verb d ep art d isc lo se p le a se ex p o se m ix clo se 2* fail — р а з р у ш а т ь с я - > f a ilu r e — р а з р у ш е н и е Noun 36 Английский лзыкдлл студентов строительных специальностей Pattern 6 I A d je c tiv e + -ly - » A d v e rb | Example e x a c t — т о ч н ы й e x a c tly — т о ч н о Adjective Adverb in d e p e n d e n t ___________________ c o rre c t ___________________ equal ___________________ cheap ___________________ o b v io u s ___________________ p ro p er ___________________ fre q u e n t _________________ _ r a p id ___________________ SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8. A . C o m p le te th e te n s e c h a rt. U s e th e verb w r ite fo r th e A c tiv e V o ic e . A C T IV E P re se n t P a st F u tu re P re se n t P erfect P a s t P erfect F u tu re P erfect S im p le h e writes C o n tin u o u s w e are writing UNIT2.GREATCIVILENGINEERS 37 B . C o m p a r e th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s a n d tr a n s la te th e m . clean th e o f f ic e e v e r y d a y . T h e y are cleaning th e o ffic e n o w . T h e y have cleaned th e o ffic e f o r tw o h o u r s . T h e y have been cleaning th e o f f ic e f o r t w o h o u r s 2 T h e y cleaned t h e o f f ic e y e s te rd a y . T h e y have j u s t cleaned t h e o ffic e . T h e y were cleaning th e o ffic e w h e n t h e b o s s c a m e . T h e y had cleaned the o ffic e w h e n t h e b o ss c a m e . T h e y had been cleaning t h e o f f ic e f o r tw o h o u r s w h e n th e b o s s c a m e . 3 . 1 t h i n k th e y will clean th e o ffic e t o m o r r o w . T h e y will be cleaning th e o ffic e w h e n th e b o s s c o m e s . T h e y will have cleaned t h e o ffic e b y t h e ti m e th e b o s s c o m e s . T h e y will have been cleaning t h e o ffic e f o r tw o h o u r s w h e n t h e b o s s c o m e s . 1. They 9. W r ite th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s in th e n e g a tiv e fo rm . T h e n c h a n g e th em t o g e n e r a l, a lte r n a tiv e , sp e c ia l (b e g in n in g w ith th e q u e stio n -w o r d s g iv e n in b r a c k e ts) and t a g q u e s tio n s . 1. T h e y c o n s tr u c te d tw o h o u s e s la s t y e a r. ( W h e n ? W h a t? H o w m a n y ? W h o ? ) 2 . M y f r ie n d s a r e b u ild in g t h e i r o w n h o u s e n o w . ( W h a t? W h e n ? W h o ? W h o s e ? ) 3 H e h a s k n o w n h im f o r a lo n g tim e . ( W h o ? H o w L o n g ? ) 4 . T h e o ffic e u s u a lly c lo s e s a t 7 o ’c lo c k in t h e e v e n in g . ( W h e n ? W h a t t im e ? W h a t1 78 6 * ) 5. T h e c h i e f e n g in e e r w ill b e v isitin g th e c o n s tr u c tio n s ite i n t h e s u b u r b s o f th e to w n f r o m 2 o ’c lo c k till 4 o ’clo c k to m o rro w . (W h e re ? W h e n ? W h a t tim e ? W h o ? ) 6. T h e y h a d b u ilt a n e w h o s p ita l b e fo re I c a m e t o t h a t t o w n . (W h a t? W h e n ? W h o ? ) 7. T h e d e s ig n e r w a s u s in g a c o m p u t e r in t h e o ffic e a t 3 o ’c lo c k y e s te r d a y . ( W h e r e ? W h a t? W h e n ? W h a t tim e ? W h o ? ) 8. M y f e llo w s tu d e n ts w ill h a v e t h e i r f ie ld tr a i n i n g d u r in g th e v a c a tio n . ( W h e n ? W h a t? W h o ? W h o s e ? ) 9. T h e y w ill h a v e fin is h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n b y t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r. ( W h a t? W h e n ? W h o ? ) 10. W e h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p in g th is p r o d u c t f o r tw o y e a rs. (W h a t? H o w lo n g ? W ho?) 38 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 1 0 . F ill th e g a p s w ith th e c o r r e c t form o f th e verb . T r a n sla te th e s e n te n c e s in to R u ssia n . 1. _ _ _ _ _ T h e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w o rk in g in b u ild in g c o n s tr u c tio n (g o d o w n ) . 2. T h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f th e s e s tr u c tu r e s ._________ (g ro w ) o v e r se v e ra l d e c a d e s . 3 . 1 a m s u re t h e y __________ (o f f e r ) h im a n e w j o b n e x t w e e k 4 . B y t h e m id - 1 9 9 0 s , th e c o u n t r y ’s p r o d u c t i o n o f b u ild in g m a t e r i a l s _________ ( d o u b le ) . 5. T e c h n i c a l r e q u ir e m e n ts in b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n _________ (g ro w ) d a y t o d a y n o w . 6 . T h e y _________ (ta k e u p ) r e p a irs f o r v a rio u s r o a d s la st y e a r. 7 T h e b u ild e r sa y s h e _________ (fin is h ) th e r o o f b y n e x t S a tu r d a y 8. T h e y _________ ( m a k e ) p r o d u c t s a t th e lo w e s t p o s s ib le c o s t a t t h a t tim e . 9. M a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c ts u s u a lly _________ (s u ffe r) f r o m fin a n c ia l p r o b le m s . 1 0 . 1 __________ (w o rk ) a t t h e p l a n t fo r th r e e y e a s w h e n m y b r o t h e r a rriv e d . 11. T h e c o m p a n y __________( m a k e ) n e w ty p e s o f p r o d u c ts a t th is t im e n e x t y e a r. 12. W h e n M r. B ro w n re tire s n e x t y e a r, h e _________ (w o rk ) f o r th is c o m p a n y f o r 25 y e a rs. 1 1 . R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s in to R u ssia n p a y in g a tte n tio n to th e p r e d ic a te s u se d in th e S im p le , C o n tin u o u s, P e r fe c t a n d P e r fe c t C o n tin u o u s fo r m s. 1 1. A b o u t t w o t h o u s a n d p h o to s a n d n e g a tiv e s m a d e b y V la d im ir G . S h u k h o v h a v e s u rv iv e d u n til th is d a y . 2. T h e y h a v e b e e n w o rk in g o u t a n e w p r o d u c t i o n p l a n fo r t w o w e e k s . 3. C itie s w ill g ro w , b u t t h e g ro w th m u s t b e c o n tr o lle d . 4 . V la d im ir G . S h u k h o v b r o u g h t a lo t o f in n o v a tio n s t o t h e o il i n d u s tr y a n d th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f n u m e r o u s b n d g e s a n d b u ild in g s 5. T h e y w e re c o n d u c tin g a n in te re s tin g e x p e n m e n t o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n site fro m 9 o ’c lo c k till 12 o ’c lo c k y e s te rd a y . 6. A t p re s e n t th is d e p a r tm e n t is c o n d u c tin g te s ts o n n e w m a te n a ls . 7. A fte r t h e e x h ib itio n h a d c lo s e d , t h e t o w e r o f ra re b e a u ty w a s b o u g h t b y th e w e ll- k n o w n M a e c e n a s a n d p la c e d m h is e s ta te . 8. S te e l tru s s e s a re c le a rly v is ib le , a n d t h e y d e m o n s tr a te t h e e le g a n c e o f th e g ra n d io s e b u ild in g . 9. V la d im ir G . S h u k h o v ’s UNIT2.GREATCIVILENGINEERS 39 in n o v a tiv e a n d e x q u isite c o n s tr u c tio n s still g ra c e m a n y to w n s a c ro s s R u s s ia . 10. T h e i n v e s tig a tio n h a s s h o w n t h a t , i f p r o p e r ly u s e d , t o w e r c r a n e s w ill e f f e c t c o n s id e r a b le s a v in g s m b u ild in g c o s ts b y a v o id in g th e n e c e s s ity f o r d o u b le h a n d lin g o f m a te r ia ls a n d b y e n a b lin g la rg e p ie c e s o f a s tru c tu re t o b e p r e f a b n c a te d o n th e g r o u n d a n d t h e n h o iste d in to p o s itio n 11. H e h a s k n o w n th e c h i e f e n g in e e r f o r th r e e y e a rs. 12. R e a d an d t r a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s w ith u s e d to (р а н ь ш е , п р е ж д е , к о г д а - т о , в п р о ш л о м ). Example Н е used to b e a n e n g in e e r . — Когда-то о н б ы л и н ж е н е р о м . 1. B u ild in g o p e r a tio n s u s e d to s to p in v e ry b a d w in te r c o n d itio n s . 2 . I u s e d t o h a v e a c a r , b u t 1 s o ld it. 3 . T h e f a c to r y u s e d t o b e in t h e c ity c e n tr e . 4 . H e u s e d t o w o r k a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r b e f o r e h e s ta r t e d h is o w n b u s in e s s . 5. D id h e u s e t o liv e in t h a t to w n w h e n h e w a s a c h ild ? 6 . 1 d i d n ’t u s e t o d r iv e t o w o rk . SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. W h a t d o y o u k n o w ab o u t V la d im ir G . S h u k h o v ? R e a d th e s t a te m e n ts g iv e n b e lo w an d s a y i f th e y a r e rig h t o r w r o n g . I f th e s ta te m e n ts a r e n o t r ig h t, m a k e th e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c tio n s . a ) V .G . S h u k h o v d e v e lo p e d h y p e r b o lo id s tr u c tu r e s . b ) B a s e d o n th e c a lc u la tio n s o f t h e o p tim a l d i a m e t e r a n d w all th ic k n e s s o f p i p e l i n e s , Shukhov d e s ig n e d t h e first R u s s ia n o il ta n k e r. c ) V .G . S h u k h o v c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m s i n R u s s ia . 40 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей d ) T h e first h y p e ib o lo id stru c tu re in th e w o rld w as t h e s te e l la ttic e 3 7 - m e t e r to w e r b u ilt b y V .G S h u k h o v fo r t h e 1896 A ll-R u s s ia i n d u s t n a l a n d a r t e x h ib itio n in N iz h n iy N o v g o ro d . e ) P etro v sk y P assag e, a n elite d e p a rtm e n t sto re , a n d th e K iyevsky R a il T e r m in a l m M o s c o w w e re d e s ig n e d b y V .G . S h u k h o v . 0 T h e S h u k h o v r a d io to w e r , a ls o k n o w n a s t h e S h a b o lo v k a to w e r , is n o t a h y p e r b o lo id s tru c tu re . 14. R ea d T e x t 2 A to fin d o u t i f y o u a r e rig h t o r w ro n g . U s e th e in tro d u cto ry p h r a se s g iv en in U n it 1. • TEXT 2A V lad im ir G. Shukhov V la d im ir G rig o ry e v ic h S h u k h o v (1 8 5 3 — 1939) w as a g re a t R u s s ia n e n g in e e r, s c ie n tis t a n d a r c h ite c t r e n o w n e d fo r h is p io n e e rin g w orks o n new m eth o d s o f analysis fo r structural e n g in e e n n g t h a t le d t o b r e a k th r o u g h s in in d u s tn a l d e sig n . B e sid e s th e in n o v a tio n s he b ro u g h t to th e o il in d u stry a n d t h e c o n s tru c tio n o f n u m e ro u s b rid g e s a n d b u ild in g s , S h u k h o v w a s t h e in v e n to r o f a n e w fa m ily o f d o u b ly c u r v e d s tr u c tu r a l fo rm s . T h e s e fo rm s b a s e d o n n o n - E u c l i d e a n h y p e rb o lic g e o m e tr y a re k n o w n to d a y as h y p e rb o lo id s o f r e v o lu tio n . S h u k h o v d e v e lo p e d n o t o n ly m a n y v a r ie tie s o f lig h t- w e ig h t h y p e rb o lo id to w e rs a n d r o o f s y ste m s, b u t also th e m a th e m a tic s fo r t h e i r an aly sis. V .G S h u k h o v is r e fe rre d as t h e R u s s ia n E d is o n H e w a s o n e o f t h e firs t t o d e v e lo p p r a c tic a l c a l c u l a t i o n s o f s tre s s e s a n d d e fo rm a tio n s o f b e a m s , sh ells a n d m e m b ra n e s o n elastic fo u n d a tio n . T h e s e th e o re tic a l re su lts a llo w e d h im t o d e sig n th e first R u s s ia n oil t a n k e r , n e w ty p e s o f o il ta n k e r b a rg e s , a n d o il re s e rv o irs T h e UNIT 2. GREATCIVILENGINEERS 41 s a m e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e s h e ll o n a n e la s tic f o u n d a tio n a llo w e d c a lc u la tin g th e o p tim a l d ia m e te r , w all t h ic k n e s s a n d flu id s p e e d fo r th e f lu id p ip e lin e s . V G . S h u k h o v a lso le ft a la s tin g le g a c y t o th e C o n s tr u c tiv is t a r c h ite c tu r e o f e a rly S o v ie t R u ssia. A s a le a d in g sp e c ia list o f m e ta llic s tr u c tu r e s ( h y p e r b o lo id s tr u c tu r e s , th i n - s h e l l s t r u c tu r e s , te n s ile s t r u c t u r e s ) , h e m a y b e c o m p a r e d w ith G . E iffe l. S h u k h o v ’s in n o v a tiv e a n d e x q u isite c o n s tr u c tio n s still g r a c e m a n y to w n s a c ro ss R u s s ia . F o r t h e 1896 A ll- R u s s ia in d u s tn a l a n d a r t e x h ib itio n in N iz h n iy N o v g o r o d V .G . S h u k h o v b u ilt t h e s te e l la ttic e 3 7 - m e te r t o w e r w h ic h b e c a m e t h e f irs t h y p e r b o lo id s tr u c tu r e in t h e w o rld . T h e a sto n ish in g h y p e rb o lo id ste e l g n d shell c a u s e d d e h g h t o f th e E u r o p e a n s p e c ia lists. A f te r t h e e x h ib itio n h a d c lo s e d , t h e t o w e r o f ra r e b e a u ty w a s b o u g h t b y t h e w e ll- k n o w n M a e c e n a s o f t h a t t i m e Y u .S . N e c h a y e v -M a lts o v a n d p la c e d in h is e s ta te P o lib in o , L ip e ts k o b la s t, w h e r e it h a s p r e s e r v e d u n t i l n o w u n d e r t h e s ta te p r o te c tio n . I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t y ears, S h u k h o v d e v e lo p e d n u m e r o u s stru c tu re s o f v a n o u s h y p e r b o lo id s te e l g n d s h e lls a n d u s e d th e m in h u n d r e d s o f w a te r to w e r s , s e a lig h th o u s e s a n d s u p p o r ts f o r p o w e r tr a n s m is s io n lin e s . T h e h y p e r b o lo id s tr u c tu r e s a p p e a r e d a b r o a d o n ly 10 y e a rs a f te r S h u k h o v ’s in v e n tio n . P etro v sk y P assage is a n e lite d e p a r tm e n t s to re o p e n e d in P e tro v k a S tr e e t in d o w n to w n M o s c o w in 1906. V la d im ir S h u k h o v d e s ig n e d a c o v e r e d a r c a d e w ith tw o w id e t h r e e - s to r e y g a lle rie s c o v e r e d w ith h ig h - p itc h e d s e m i- c y lin d r ic a l g la ss v a u ltin g . T h e s e c o n d s to re y s o f o p p o s ite g a lle rie s are c o n n e c te d b y e x q u isite ly d e sig n e d fe rro c o n c re te c a tw a lk s. I n t h e 1990s, th e s h o p w a s r e v a m p e d a s t h e c e n tr e o f o n e o f th e m o s t e x p e n s iv e s h o p p in g a re a s in E u r o p e . T h e K iy e v sk y R a il T e r m in a l is o n e o f th e n in e ra il t e r m in a ls o f M o s c o w . T h e s t a tio n w a s b u i l t b e tw e e n 1914 a n d 1918 m th e B y z a n tin e R e v iv a l s ty le . O r ig in a lly n a m e d t h e B r y a n s k R a il T e r m in a l, it w a s d e s ig n e d b y Iv a n R e r b e ig a n d V la d im ir S h u k h o v ; it is c o n s id e re d a n i m p o r ta n t l a n d m a rk o f a r c h ite c tu re a n d e n g in e e n n g o f th e tim e . T h e s ta t i o n b u ild in g is f la n k e d b y a g ig a n tic la n d in g 42 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей p la tf o r m w h ic h is d is tin g u is h e d b y its s im p lic ity a n d c o n s tr u c tiv e b o ld n e ss. T h e p la tfo rm s a re c o v e re d b y m assive glassed a rc h s tru c tu re s in t h e fo rm o f a p a ra b o la . O p e n -w o rk s te e l tru sse s a re c le a rly visible, a n d t h e y d e m o n s tr a te th e e le g a n c e o f th e g ra n d io s e b u ild in g . T h e S h u k h o v ra d io t o w e r, a lso k n o w n as t h e S h a b o lo v k a to w e r, is a b r o a d c a s tin g t o w e r in M o s c o w d e s ig n e d b y V . S h u k h o v . T h e 1 6 0 -m e tre -h ig h f re e -s ta n d in g ste e l s tr u c tu r e w a s b u ilt in th e p e rio d o f 191 9 — 1922. It is a h y p e rb o lo id s tr u c tu r e . D u e t o its la ttic e stru c tu re th e ste e l sh e ll o f th e S h u k h o v T o w e r e x p e rie n c e s m in im u m w in d lo a d ( th e m a in h a z a r d fo r h ig h - r is in g b u ild in g s ). T h e t o w e r s e c tio n s a re sin g le -c a v ity h y p e rb o lo id s o f r o ta tio n m a d e o f s tra ig h t b e a m s , t h e e n d s o f w h ic h re s t a g a in s t c ir c u la r f o u n d a tio n s . T h e to w e r is l o c a te d a few k ilo m e te r s s o u th o f t h e M o s c o w K re m lin . S h u k h o v is a ls o r e p u te d fo r h is o rig in a l d e s ig n s o f m o r e th a n 180 b rid g e s a c ro s s th e V o lg a , Y e n is e y , D n i e p e r , a n d o t h e r riv e rs. 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 2 A th e p aragrap h sa y in g ab o u t th e str u c tu r e o f th e S h u k h o v ra d io to w e r and tr a n s la te it in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p a ra g ra p h s 2 an d 3 o f T e x t 2A . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s. a) These fo rm s b a s e d o n n o n - E u c l i d e a n h y p e rb o lic g e o m e tr y a re k n o w n to d a y a s h y p e rb o lo id s o f r e v o lu tio n . W h a t d o e s th e d e m o n s tra tiv e a d je c tiv e these r e fe r to ? their a n a ly sis. b ) V . S h u k h o v d e v e lo p e d th e m a t h e m a tic s fo r W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n their re f e r t o ? c ) V .G . S h u k h o v is r e fe rre d t o a s t h e R u s s ia n W h o is Edison re fe rre d Edison. to ? d ) h e m a y b e c o m p a r e d w ith G. Eiffel. W h o is G. Eiffel r e fe rre d to ? e ) it is c o n s id e r e d a n im p o r t a n t la n d m a r k o f a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d e n g in e e r in g o f t h e tim e . W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n it re f e r to ? UNIT 2. f) GREATCIVILENGINEERS 43 T h . s ta tio n b u ild in g is fla n k e d b y a g ig a n tic la n d in g p la tf o r m w h ic h is d is tin g u is h e d b y its s im p lic ity a n d its r e f e r to ? c o n s tr u c tiv e b o ld n e s s W h a t d o es th e p r o n o u n 1 8 . Fin d in T e x t 2A so m e k e y w ord s an d e x p r e s s io n s t o sp e a k a b o u t V .G . S h u k h o v ’s in n o v a tio n s in b u ild in g e n g in e e r in g an d a r c h ite c tu r e . R e te ll th e T e x t in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 2 B “ V .G . S h u k h o v ’s B io g r a p h y ” an d tr y to u n d erstan d w h a t it is a b o u t a n d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is n e w t o y o u . • TEXT 2B V.G . SHUKHOV'S BIOGRAPHY V la d im ir S h u k h o v w a s b o m in t h e to w n o f G r a iv o r o n , B e lg o ro d u y e z d , K u r s k g u b e m iy a ( in p r e s e n t- d a y B e lg o r o d o b la s t) in t o a p e tty n o b le fa m ily . H is f a t h e r G r ig o r y S h u k h o v w a s a m in o r g o v e r n m e n t o ffic ia l, p r o m o t e d f o r h is e f f o r ts in th e C r i m e a n W a r. F o r a w h ile G r ig o r y s e r v e d a s M a y o r o f G r a i v o r o n a n d la te r a s a n a d m in is tr a to r in W a rs a w In 1864 V la d im ir e n te r e d S t. P e te rs b u rg g y m n a s iu m fr o m w h ic h h e g r a d u a te d w ith d is tin c tio n in 1871 D u r in g h is h ig h sc h o o l y e a rs h e s h o w e d m a t h e m a t i c a l t a l e n t s , o n c e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t o h is cla ssm a te s a n d te a c h e r a n o rig in a l p r o o f o f th e P y th a g o re a n th e o r e m . T h e te a c h e r p r a is e d h is skills b u t h e fa ile d th e g r a d e f o r v io l a t i n g t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f t h e te x tb o o k . A f te r g r a d u a t i n g f r o m t h e g y m n a s iu m , S h u k h o v e n te re d th e Im p e ria l M o sc o w T e c h n ic a l S c h o o l in w h ic h h is te a c h e rs m c lu d e d P a f n u ty C h e b y s h e v , A le k s e y L e tn ik o v , a n d N ik o la y Z h u k o v s k y . In 1876 Shukhov g ra d u a te d f r o m th e s c h o o l w ith d is tin c tio n a n d a G o l d M e d a l. C h e b y s h e v p r o p o s e d h im a j o b a s a le c tu r e r in m a th e m a tic s a t th e Im p e r ia l 44 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей M o s c o w T e c h n ic a l S c h o o l, b u t S h u k h o v d e c id e d t o s e e k a j o b in t h e in d u s try in s te a d . T h e re u p o n S h u k h o v w e n t t o P h ila d e lp h ia t o w o rk o n th e R u ssia n p a v ilio n a t th e W o r ld ’s F a ir a n d t o s tu d y t h e i n n e r w o rk in g s o f th e A m e n c a n in d u s try . D u r in g h is s ta y in t h e U S S h u k h o v c a m e to k n o w a R u s s ia n - A m e n c a n e n t r e p r e n e u r , A le x a n d e r B a ri w h o a lso w o rk e d o n t h e o rg a n iz a tio n o f t h e F a ir. I n 1877 S h u k h o v r e t u r n e d t o R u s s ia a n d j o i n e d t h e d ra ftin g o ffic e o f t h e W a rs a w -V ie n n a r a ilro a d . W ith in s e v e ra l m o n th s , S h u k h o v ’s fru s tra tio n w ith s ta n d a rd a n d ro u tin e e n g i n e e n n g m a d e h im a b a n d o n th e o ffic e a n d jo i n a m ilita r y - m e d ic a l a c a d e m y . O n h is c o m in g t o R u s s ia in 1 877, B a n p e r s u a d e d S h u k h o v t o g iv e u p his m e d ic a l e d u c a tio n a n d t o a s s u m e th e o ffic e o f C h i e f E n g in e e r in a n e w c o m p a n y s p e c ia liz in g in in n o v a tiv e e n g i n e e n n g . S h u k h o v w o rk e d w ith B a n f o r th is c o m p a n y u n til t h e O c to b e r R e v o lu tio n T h e ir w o rk s r e v o lu tio n iz e d m a n y a re a s o f c iv il e n g in e e r in g , s h i p e n g in e e n n g , a n d o il in d u s try . T h e t h e r m a l c ra c k in g m e th o d , t h e S h u k h o v c ra c k in g p r o c e s s , w a s p a t e n t e d b y V la d im ir S h u k h o v in 1891 S h u k h o v a lw a y s f o u n d t i m e f o r a p a s s i o n a t e h o b b y — p h o to g r a p h y . T h e p h o to g r a p h ic w o rk s o f S h u k h o v o p e n e d n e w tr e n d s a h e a d o f t h e i r flo u ris h in g o f fin e a r t p h o to g r a p h y . H e m a d e p h o to s in v a n o u s g e n re s : c ity la n d s c a p e , p o r tr a it, c o n s tru c tiv is m . A b o u t tw o t h o u s a n d p h o t o s a n d n e g a tiv e s m a d e b y S h u k h o v h a v e su rv iv e d u n til th is d a y . A fte r t h e O c to b e r R e v o lu tio n S h u k h o v d e c id e d t o s ta y in th e S o v ie t U n io n d e sp ite h a v in g re c e iv e d a llu rin g j o b o ffe rs f ro m a ro u n d t h e w o rld . M a n y sig n a l S o v ie t e n g in e e r in g p ro je c ts o f t h e 1920s w e re a s s o c ia te d w ith h is n a m e . I n 1919 h e f r a m e d h is slo g a n : “ W e s h o u ld w o rk i n d e p e n d e n tly fro m p o litic s . T h e b u ild in g s , b o ile rs , b e a m s a re n e e d e d a n d s o a re w e ” . I n t h e la te r 1 930s h e r e tir e d fr o m e n g in e e n n g w o rk . S h u k o v d ie d o n F e b r u a r y 2 , 1939 in M o s c o w a n d w a s b u n e d a t t h e N o v o d e v ic h y C e m e te ry UNrT2.GREATCIVILENGINEERS 45 2 0 . I d e n tify th e to p ic o f e a c h p a r a g r a p h o f T e x t 2 B . 2 1 . A n sw e r th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s. a ) W h e r e w a s V .G . S h u k h o v b o r n 9 b ) W h a t fa m ily w a s h e b o m in to ? c ) W h y d id t h e h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r p r a is e V la d im ir ’s sk ills? d ) D id V .G . S h u k h o v w o r k a s a le c t u r e r in m a t h e m a tic s a t t h e I m p e r ia l M o s c o w T e c h n ic a l S c h o o l? e ) W h y d id V .G . S h u k h o v g o t o P h ila d e lp h ia ? f) W h a t in n o v a tio n s d id V .G . S h u k h o v b r in g t o c iv il a n d s h ip e n g i n e e n n g , w o rk in g w ith B a n 9 g) W h a t w a s V .G . S h u k h o v ’s h o b b y ? h ) D id S h u k h o v r e c e iv e a n y j o b o f f e r s f r o m a r o u n d t h e w o r ld ? 2 2 . R e a d T e x t 2 C “ J o h n S m e a t o n — th e F ir s t C iv il E n g in e e r ” a n d a n s w e r t h e q u e s t io n s . D i s c u s s y o u r a n s w e r s w ith y o u r gro u p m a tes. a ) W h y is J o h n S m e a to n r e g a r d e d a s t h e f a th e r o f th e civ il e n g in e e n n g p r o f e s s io n ? b ) W h a t w a s J o h n S m e a t o n ’s r e s e a r c h in to p o w e r so u r c e s ? c ) W h a t w a s J o h n S m e a to n c h a r g e d w ith b y th e P r e s id e n t o f th e R o y a l S o c ie ty ? d ) W h a t w e re J o h n S m e a t o n ’s d e v e lo p m e n ts in t h e fie ld o f th e e n g in e e r in g u se o f c e m e n t a n d c o n c r e te ? e ) W h y is th e d e p t h o f J o h n S m e a t o n ’s in f lu e n c e o n c iv il e n g in e e r in g p h e n o m e n a l? f) W h y d id J o h n S m e a to n w a n t p ra c tis in g p ro fe s s io n a l e n g in e e r s to d in e to g e th e r ? g ) W h a t le d t o t h e f o u n d in g o f t h e I n tu itio n o f C iv il E n g in e e r s ? 46 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей • TEXT 2С John Smeaton — the F irst C ivil Engineer J o h n S m e a to n firs t d e s c rib e d h im s e lf a s a c iv il e n g i n e e r m В 1768. I n d o in g s o , h e id e n tifie d a n e w p ro fe s s io n t h a t w a s d is tin c t f r o m t h a t o f t h e m ilita ry e n g in e e rs w h o , s in c e a n c ie n t tim e s, h a d u n d e rta k e n th e c o n s tru c tio n o f all p u b lic in fra s tru c tu re . T h u s , a t t h e tim e , civil e n g in e e rin g e n c o m p a s s e d all n o n -m ilita ry e n g in e e rin g . A lth o u g h in 1847, a fte r a fre n z y o f ra ilw a y c o n s tru c tio n , m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g b ifu rc a te d fro m c iv il e n g in e e rin g as a n in d e p e n d e n t d is c ip lin e . A n in n o v a tiv e a n d in te llig e n t m a n , S m e a to n re m a in s o n e o f th e m o s t re v e re d p ro fe s s io n a ls o f e n g in e e r in g a n d is re g a rd e d as t h e fa th e r o f th e c iv il e n g in e e rin g p ro fe s s io n . T h e s o n o f a Y o rk s h ire la w y e r, J o h n S m e a to n w a s b o r n in 1724, in A u s th o r p e , L e e d s , U K . B e fo re h is 16 th b ir th d a y , w h ile s till a t s c h o o l, h is ta l e n t fo r e n g in e e r in g a n d u s e o f m e c h a n ic a l to o ls p o sse sse d h im to a sse m b le a tu rn in g -la th e . S m e a to n p ro c e e d e d t o b e c o m e a n i n s t r u m e n t- m a k e r . H is re s e a r c h in t o w in d m ills , w a te rm ills a n d o t h e r s o u rc e s o f p o w e r r e s u lte d , in 1 754, in a s y s te m a tic s e t o f s c ie n tific e x p e n m e n t s t h a t m a d e it c l e a r t h a t a n o v e rs h o t w a te rw h e e l is m o re e ffic ie n t t h a n a n u n d e r s h o t w h e e l. In 1756 th e P resident o f th e R oyal S ociety fam ously ch a ig e d S m e a to n w ith th e c o n stru c tio n o f th e E d d y sto n e L ig h th o u se , a stru c tu re re q u ire d to w a rn shi p s a w a y fro m th e E d d y s to n e ro c k s, 14 m iles s o u th w e s t o f P ly m o u th . S m e a t o n ’s d e s ig n , w h ic h re m a in s a sy m b o l o f th e p ro fe s s io n , w a s c o m p le te d in 1759 a n d la s te d u n til 1881. S m e a to n ’s in d u s try re s u lte d in tw o d e v e lo p m e n ts t h a t m a d e a n im p o r ta n t c o n tr ib u tio n to th e su c c e ss o f th e E d d y s to n e L ig h th o u se . F irs t, h e u s e d a n e w k in d o f i n te r lo c k in g s to n e c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d s e c o n d , h e d e v e lo p e d a w a te r - r e s is ta n t ( h y d ra u lic ) m o r t a r t o b in d t h e b lo c k s to g e t h e r b y m ix in g b lu e lim e a n d p o z z o la m c m a te ria l UNIT 2. GREATCIVILENGINEERS f r o m Ita ly . S m e a t o n ’s o b s e r v a tio n t h a t th e b e s t h y d r a u lic c e m e n ts w e re th o s e m a d e f r o m lim e s to n e c o n ta in in g c e r ta in p r o p o r tio n s o f c la y e y m a te r ia l a r e r e g a r d e d a s t h e s ta r tin g p o i n t o f t h e m o d e m e n g in e e r in g u se o f c e m e n t a n d c o n c r e te . T o d a y S m e a t o n r e m a i n s o n e o f c iv il e n g i n e e r i n g h e a v y ­ w e ig h ts — t h e b r e a d t h a n d d e p t h o f h is in f lu e n c e a r e p h e n o m e n a l. I n h is c a r e e r , S m e a to n d e s ig n e d t h e first su c c e s s fu l E d d y s to n e L i g h th o u s e , g r e a tly i m p r o v e d o n N e w c o m e n ’s s te a m e n g in e , a n d d e s ig n e d w in d m ills , w a te r m ills , c a n a ls a n d bridges. J o h n S m e a to n d ie d o n t h e 2 8 O c to b e r , 1 792. H is e n d u r in g le g a c y is m o r e t h a n t h e e n g in e e r in g w o r k s , s o m e o f w h ic h r e m a in a s m o n u m e n ts t o t h e g r e a t m a n h im s e lf. N o t o n ly is h e w id e ly r e g a r d e d a s t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e c iv il e n g in e e r in g p r o f e s s io n , b u t h is m e th o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite m a n a g e m e n t a n d s u p e r v is io n a re still in u se to d a y . J o h n S m e a to n c le a r ly u n d e r s to o d t h a t m a n a g in g p e o p le c o r r e c tly w a s a s im p o r t a n t a s d e s ig n a n d c o n s tr u c tio n . I t w a s S m e a t o n ’s d e s ire t h a t p r a c tis in g p r o f e s s io n a l e n g in e e r s s h o u ld d in e to g e th e r — so t h a t th e y m ig h t g e t t o k n o w o n e a n o th e r b e t t e r a n d th e r e b y a v o id p o te n tia l h o s tility t h a t m ig h t a ris e in t h e ir p u b lic d e a lin g s — t h a t s p a w n e d t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e S o c ie ty o f C ivil E n g in e e r s in 1771. W h ile t h e S o c ie ty r e m a in s as a s o c ia l s o c ie ty t o d a y , it is tr u e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f c o - o p e r a tio n in c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n e n g in e e r s le d t o th e f o u n d in g o f t h e I n s t itu tio n o f C iv il E n g in e e r s in 1818. t 23. SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING L iste n to th e T e x t “T h e F a th er o f th e A m erican S k y sc r a p e r ” a b ou t th e A m erica n civ il e n g in e e r and a r c h ite c t W illia m L e B a r o n Jen n ey. Study the following commentary. t h e L e ite r B u ild in g — з д а н и е м а г а з и н а ф и р м ы “ Л е й т е р ” 48 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей a ) A n sw e r th e q u e stio n s th a t follow . 1. W h e n a n d w h e r e w a s W illia m J e n n e y b o r n 7 2. W h e r e d id h e b e g in h is fo r m a l e d u c a t i o n 7 3. W h y d id h e m o v e t o P a n s 7 4. W h o w a s h is c la s s m a te ? 5. W h e r e d id W illia m J e n n e y b e g in h is o w n a r c h ite c tu r a l o ffic e ? 6. W h a t b u ild in g is J e n n e y m o s t f a m o u s fo r? 7 W h a t is t h e d e s ig n o f t h i s b u ild in g 7 8. W h a t m e th o d d id h e u s e to re d u c e th e w e ig h t o f t h e b u ild in g ? 9. H o w d id h e s o lv e t h e p r o b le m o f f ir e p r o o f c o n s tr u c tio n ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 2 A o f th e T e x t . L o o k up th e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a r y . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t W illiam J e n n e y . d) T e ll y o u r g r o u p m a te s ab o u t s o m e o th e r A m erica n o r B ritish civ il e n g in e e r s and a r c h ite c ts yo u k n o w . 24. L iste n to th e T e x t “ N ik o la i V . N ik itin ” . a ) Y ou w ill h e a r th e n u m b ers given b e lo w in th e c h a r t. S a y w h a t t h e s e n u m b ers r e fe r to . 1907 1930 1932 1949 1953 85 1937 540 1957 1963 3 1973 240 1967 500 42 b ) C h e c k yo u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 2 B o f th e T e x t . L o o k up th e w o r d s you do n o t k n o w in th e d ictio n a ry . c) R e te ll th e T e x t . UNIT 3 JOBS IN CONSTRUCTION SECTION 1 Ш VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1. R e a d an d m e m o r iz e th e a c tiv e v o c a b u la r y to t h e t e x t “O c c u p a tio n s in th e C o n str u c tio n In d u str y ” an d t r a n s la te th e given s e n te n c e s. 1. o c c u p y [ 'a k j u p a i ] v — з а н и м а т ь ( п о м е щ е н и е и т п .) o c c u p a tio n [ p k j u 'p e i j n ] п — род зан яти й , проф есси я tr a d e — п р о ф е с с и я , р е м е с л о ; п р о и з в о д с т в о , п р о м ы ш ­ л енность tr a d e w o r k e r (la b o u r e r ) — п р о м ы ш л е н н ы й р а б о ч и й c o n str u c tio n tr a d e w ork er — с т р о и т е л ь н ы й р а б о ч и й occupied a s m a ll f la t. P le a s e s ta te y o u r n a m e , occupation. T h e b u ild in g in d u s tr y c o m p r is e s s k ille d a n d u n s k ille d w o r k e r s in m a n y trades. H a v in g c o m p le te d th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s ite , the trade workers b e g in t h e in itia l sta g e T h e fa m ily ad d re ss, a n d 2. c o n tr a c to r [ k a n 't r a s k t a ] n — подрядчик c o n str u c tio n c o n tr a c to r — с т р о и т е л ь н ы й п о д р я д ч и к g e n e r a l c o n tr a c to r — г е н е р а л ь н ы й п о д р я д ч и к su b c o n tr a c to r L s A b k a n 'tr a e k ta ] n — субподрядчик The contractor s h o u ld a lso b e a w a r e o f all the subcontractors so t h a t t h e b e s t s e q u e n c e o f b u i l d i n g o p e r a tio n s c a n b e s e c u r e d . 50 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 3. sewer ['s(j)u.s] ѵ — канализационный коллектор sewerage ['s(j)u:9rid3] п — канализационная система install a sewerage system — прокладывать (устанавли­ вать) канализационную систему The removal of all kind of liquid waste is usually done by means of sewers which are a part of a sewerage system. 4. relate (to) [ri'leit] v — относиться, иметь отношение closely related — тесно связанный The form of a building component is related to the way in which it is used Air-conditioning is closely related to ventilation. 5. carpentry ['ka:pantri] — плотничье дело, плотничьи ра­ боты carpenter ['kccpsnta] п — плотник, столяр The coming of the Iron Age brought tools which made possible the development of carpentry. A carpenter checks vertical and horizontal work. 6. plumbing І'рілтіг)] n — водопроводная система plumber ['рілтэ] n — водопроводчик Great technological advances have been made in plumbing. As soon as the plumbers have finished their work, the carpenters begin. 7 schedule ['Jedju:l] n — график, режим (работы), распи­ сание complete a job on schedule — закончить работу по гра­ фику The building was completed on schedule. 8. plaster ['pla:sta] n v — штукатурка; штукатурить apply plaster — наносить штукатурку plasterer n — штукатур UNIT3.JOBSINCONSTRUCTION 51 the plaster o n a The plasterer u s u a lly s h o w s u p a f te r a ll th e in te r n a l w a lls A f lo a t ( м а с т е р о к ) is a t o o l f o r s m o o t h i n g w a ll. w e re b u ilt. 9. r e in fo r c e [ ,r i:in 'f 3 :s ] v — у к р е п л я т ь , у с и л и в а т ь r e in fo r c e m e n t n — арм атура, а р м и р о в ан и е, у к р еп л ен и е To reinforce o r d in a r y c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s is t o in tr o d u c e s te e l r o d s . T h e r e a r e t w o k in d s o f r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e : w ith o r d in a r y reinforcement a n d c o n c r e t e w ith p r e s tr e s s e d reinforcement. 10. s it e n — м есто работ, те р р и т о р и я стро и тел ьства c o n s tr u c tio n (bu ild in g) s it e — с т р о й п л о щ а д к а The site f o r t h e n e w fa c to r y h a s n o t b e e n d e c id e d . T h e b u ild in g the construction sites. m a te r ia ls p r o d u c e d a r e tr a n s p o r te d t o 11. or d e r [ 'o :d a ] n v — заказ; по р ядо к; п р и к аз; зак азы вать o b ta in an o r d e r [ s b 't e i n ] — п о л у ч а т ь з а к а з in o r d e r to — д л я т о г о , ч т о б ы Y our order is n e a r ly re a d y . T h e h o u s e is in g o o d order. T h e y ordered s o m e n e w f in is h in g m a te r ia ls . C a r e f u l th o u g h t h a d t o b e in order to m a k e it fire p ro o f. g iv e n to t h e c o m p o s itio n o f th e p la s tic 12. e m p lo y [ i m 'p b i ] v — н а н и м а т ь ( н а р а б о т у ) ; и с п о л ь з о в а т ь e m p lo y e r [ i n T p b i a ] и — н а н и м а т е л ь , р а б о т о д а т е л ь be employed f o r r e in f o r c e d employer f o r a p a y rise . O n ly h ig h q u a lity c e m e n t s h o u ld c o n c r e te w o rk . H e a s k e d h is 13. h a n g ( w a ll)p a p e r — о к л е и в а т ь о б о я м и paper b an ger — о к л е й щ и к о б о е в to hang papers o n t h e w all b u t I w o u ld r a th e r p a in t Paper hangers, lik e m o s t p e r s o n s w h o w o r k in th e d e c o r a tin g M y w ife w a n ts th e m . in d u s tr y , t e n d t o h a v e a n e y e f o r c o lo u r , te x tu r e , a n d fo rm . 52 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 14. m a so n ['m e is n ] п — кам ен щ и к ; п р оизводить кладку brick m ason — к а м е н щ и к m ason ry [ 'm e is n r i] п — ки р п и чн ая или кам ен н ая кладка masonry c o n s tr u c tio n mason c a n n o t b e re c tifie d easily. S k ille d l a b o u r is r e q u ir e d fo r g o o d s to n e b e c a u s e th e d e fe c ts left b y a c a re le ss 15. su p erv ise ['s ( j) u :p a v a iz ] v — н а б л ю д а т ь , к о н т р о л и р о в а т ь n — н ад зо р , к о н тр о л ь n — бри гади р, руководитель р абот su p e r in te n d e n t [ , s ( j ) u : p 3 r i n 't e n d 3 n t ] n — у п р а в л я ю щ и й , su p ervision [,s ( j) u :p 3 'v in 3 n ] su p erv iso r руководитель, заведую щ и й supervised th e la b o u re rs o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n s ite . H e c a n o n ly o p e r a te th e m a c h in e u n d e r supervision. The supervisor will sh o w y o u h o w t o w o rk th e m a c h in e . The supenntendant\s in c h a rg e He o f b u ild in g . 16. v a rn is h ['v Q -.nif] v — л а к , о л и ф а ; п о к р ы в а т ь л а к о м s ta in л ѵ — к р а с к а ; п р о т р а в а , м о р и л к а ; к р а с и т ь ; п р о т р а в ­ лять Varnish p la y s a n im p o r ta n t r o le in fin is h in g w o o d e n s u rfa c e s . are varnished t o e n h a n c e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e p a in t. Stain is u s e d t o c h a n g e t h e c o l o u r o f v a rio u s ty p e s o f c h e a p q u a lity w o o d . T h e w o o d e n d o o r s were stained b ro w n . P a in te d s u rfa c e s 17. p a rtitio n [ p a : 't i j n ] — п е р е г о р о д к а , в н у т р е н н я я с т е н а Partitions s e p a ra te s p a c e f ro m s p a c e . 18. g la z e [ g le iz ] v — в с т а в л я т ь с т е к л а , з а с т е к л я т ь g la z ie r [ 'д і е ш э ] n — стекольщ ик T h e r e a re d iffe re n t ty p e s o f glazing c o m p o u n d s th a t c a n b e u s e d to glaze w in d o w s. T h e h e a tin g c o n t r a c t o r w o rk s a t t h e s a m e tim e as the glaziers. UNIT3.JOBSINCONSTRUCTION 53 19 in su la te [ 'i n s j u l e i t ] v — и з о л и р о в а т ь in su la tio n [ ,i n s j u 'l e i j n ] n — и золяц и я, и золяц и он н ы й м атериал M a n y h o u se s c o u ld b e w a r m e r i f t h e y were insulated a g a in s t h e a t lo ss. M u d w a s u s e d f o r fillin g t h e s p a c e s b e tw e e n b r ic k s a n d a c te d as c o n c re te a n d insulation. 2 0 . fin ish Л Ѵ - о т д е л к а п о в е р х н о с ти (р езу л ь тат); о тд е л ы ­ вать ap p ly fin ish e s — о т д е л ы в а т ь п о в е р х н о с т ь fin ish in g m a te r ia ls — о т д е л о ч н ы е м а т е р и а л ы B u ild e r s o f t e n finish s u r f a c e s m p l a s tic m a te r ia ls . T h e n a tu r a l finishes o f m a te n a ls p r o v id e th e d e c o r a tiv e e ffe c t T h e fa c to ry s h o w s s o m e v e ry i n te r e s tin g u s e s o f finishing materials. 2 . R e a d and tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir t r a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p art o f sp e e c h . n, g e n e r a l adj, r e s i d e n t i a l adj, c o m m e r c i a l adj, n, t u n n e l n, c o o r d in a te v, s p e c ia liz e v, p o r tio n л, p a n e l n, e l e c tr ic ia n n, c o m m u n i c a t i o n n, s e le c t v, d e c o r a tiv e adj, i n te r io r n adj, e x te r io r n adj, a s p h a lt n, th e r m o p la s tic n, c o lu m n n, f o r m v, e x c a v a tio n n, a ssist v, c o d e n, o r g a n iz a tio n a l adj, p h a s e n. Segm ent in f r a s tr u c tu r e 3 . M a t c h t h e w o r d s w ith th e d e fin itio n s b e lo w . a) p lu m b e r b) paper hanger c ) s u p e r v is o r d) c o n tra c to r e ) e m p lo y e r f) t r a d e w o r k e r g) g la z ie r h ) p l a s te r e r l) m a s o n j) c a rp e n te r 54 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 1. а person who manages 2. a worker skilled at applying plaster 3. a person who gives a job to others 4. a person skilled at making and repairing wooden objects 5. a person who cuts and fits glass 6. a person skilled at sticking wallpaper on the walls of a room 7. a person who builds or works with stone or brick 8. a person or firm that promises to do work at a fixed rate 9. a skilled worker 10. a person whose job is to fit and repair water pipes, bathroom apparatus, etc 4. Match the English word combinations with the Russian equivalents. 1. to complete on schedule 2. to build a partition 3. to reinforce masonry 4. to apply a varnish 5. to install insulation 6. to supervise a project 7. to install sewerage 8. to relate to construction 9. to apply finishes 10. to apply plaster 11 to select an occupation 12. to glaze a window a. армировать кладку b. руководить проектом c. отделывать поверхность d. относиться к строительству e. выбирать профессию Г закончить по графику g. наносить штукатурку h. застеклять окно i. устраивать изоляцию j. построить перегородку k. прокладывать канализацию l. нанести лаковое покрытие 5. Read and translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the meaning of the words and word combinations given below. I. a) finish v — отделывать b) finish n — отделка поверхности c) finisher n — рабочий-отделочник UNIT3.JOBSINCONSTRUCTION 55 d ) f in is h in g e ) f in is h e d n a d j— о к о н ч а т е л ь н а я adj — о б р а б о т а н н ы й отделка; отделочн ы й I . T h e w o o d h a s a b e a u tif u l f in is h . 2. T h e f in is h e d s u r f a c e m u s t h a v e a u n if o r m a p p e a r a n c e . 3. T h e y s h o w e d tw o g o o d w a y s to in s u la te a n d f in is h a f o u n d a t i o n w all. 4 . S e n s itiv e p e o p le w ith a lle rg ie s o r r e s p ir a to r y c o n d i t i o n s o f te n r e q u e s t c e r t a i n f in is h in g m a te r ia ls . 5. A f in is h e r p e r f o r m s t h e la st s te p in a m a n u f a c tu r in g p r o c e s s . 6 . A f te r a ll th e i n te r io r fin is h in g is d o n e in s ta ll t h e c a r p e t s o t h a t th e r e is n o d a m a g e d o n e t o it. II. a) o rd er v — зак азы вать; п р и к азы в ать b) o rd er n — зак аз; п р и к аз; п о р я д о к c ) in o r d e r t h a t — с т е м , ч т о б ы d ) in o r d e r t o — д л я т о г о , ч т о б ы e) o u t o f o rd e r — н е и с п р а в н ы й 1. T h is c o m p a n y is o n e o f th e v e ry fe w p la c e s w h e r e y o u c a n p la c e a n o r d e r f o r l u m b e r a n d r e la te d b u ild in g m a te r ia ls o n - l i n e . 2. T h e h o u s e is in g o o d o r d e r . 3. W e o r d e r h ig h q u a n t i t i e s a t o u r s u p p lie r s in o r d e r n o t t o r u n o u t o f m a te r ia l d u r in g a b u ild in g p h a s e . 4 . Y o u w ill h a v e t o o b e y m y o r d e r s . 5. I n o r d e r t o g iv e ti m b e r a n e w c h a n c e a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n m a te r ia l, t h e d if f e r e n t r e s e a r c h d e v e lo p m e n t a n d m a r k e tin g p r o g r a m s s h o u ld a im a t q u ic k u s a g e o f th e n e w t e c h n i q u e s in t i m b e r e n g in e e r in g c o n s t r u c t i o n . 6. 8. T h e m a c h in e is o u t o f o r d e r . 7 . H e o r d e r e d m e t o s t a n d u p . S h e c h e c k e d a ll h e r f ig u re s in o r d e r t h a t t h e r e p o r t m ig h t b e a s a c c u r a te a s p o ssib le . III. a ) s ite n — у ч а с т о к , м е с т о ( п о л о ж е н и е ) b ) o n s ite — н а с т р о и т е л ь н о й п л о щ а д к е c ) w e b s ite — с а й т в И н т е р н е т е d ) s ite v — р а с п о л а г а т ь , в ы б и р а т ь м е с т о 1. P r o te c tiv e h e lm e ts m u s t b e w o r n o n s ite . 2 . T h e c o m p a n y is tr y in g t o d e c id e w h e r e t o s ite t h e n e w f a c to r y . 3 . S h e h a s a j o b o n Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей а building site. 4. The site for the new factory has not been decided yet. 5. Visit our website to check out the latest deals on building materials. 6. Students in this major prepare for careers managing and inspecting construction sites and buildings. 6. Read and translate the following word combinations which come from the texts of the Unit. Mind the use of nouns as attributes in preposition. Look up your dictionary if necessary. Construction industry, civil engineering construction contractors, trade contractors, construction trade workers, brick masons, insulation workers, first-line supervisors and managers, construction management occupations, field manager, waste water treatment plants, design and construction processes, specialty trade contractor, conceptual development stage, site preparation, construction site activities. 7. Study the following patterns showing the ways some nouns are formed from verbs and adjectives. Complete the charts with nouns of the following verbs. Some of the missing words are from the texts of the Unit. Read and translate them into Russian. Use your dictionary to help you with the pronunciation. Pattern 7 Verb + -age -» Noun The -age suffix is used for an action, result, or cost of something. Example, cover — покрывать -> coverage — покрытие, охват Verb sew break Noun _________________ _________________ UNITВ. JOBSINCONSTRUCTION 57 store stop waste pack use Pattern 8 Verb + -al —>Noun The -al suffix is used for an action of something. Example, renew — обновлять -н> renewal — обновление Verb remove dismiss deny arrive Noun _________________ _________________ _________________ Pattern 9 Verb + -ant -> Noun The -ant suffix is used for a person or thing that does an activity. Example: assist — помогать —> assistant — помощник Verb consult occupy Noun _________________ _________________ 58 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей inhabit account Pattern 10 I A dje c t i ve + - ity - » N o u n ~ | T h e - i t y su ffix is u s e d f o r q u a lity . Example, c o m p le x — с л о ж н ы й - » c o m p le x ity — с л о ж н о с т ь Adjective a c p r o f a Noun t d i u t v c e ______________________ t i v a e l ______________________ _____________ _________ se c u re f ______________________ o r m a l ______________________ div e rse c re a tiv e ______________________ fa m ilia r _____________ _________ re s p o n s ib le a e le c tn c b _____________ _________ l e ______________________ ____________ UNIT 3 . JOBS IN CONSTRUCTION 59 SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8. A . C o m p le te th e t e n s e c h a r t. U s e t h e verb m a k e fo r th e P a s s iv e V o ic e . P A S S IV E P re se n t S im p le it is made P a st F u tu re P re se n t P e rfe c t it they they P a s t P e rfe c t F u tu re P e rfe c t it they C o n tin u o u s th e y it are being made B . C o m p a r e th e fo llo w in g p a ir s o f th e s e n t e n c e s a n d tr a n s la te th e m (A c tiv e V o ic e v s. P a s s iv e V o ic e ) . discuss th is film . T h is film is being discussed have discussed th i s f ilm f o r t w o h o u r s . T h is film has been discussed f o r tw o h o u r s . 3. T h e y discussed t h i s film y e s te r d a y . T h e film w a s discussed y e s te r d a y . 4 . T h e y have ju s t discussed t h is film . T h is f ilm A a s ju s t been discussed. 5. T h e y were discussing th is film w h e n s h e c a m e . T h is f ilm w a s being discussed w h e n s h e c a m e . 6. T h e y had discussed t h i s f ilm w h e n s h e c a m e T h e f ilm had been discussed w h e n s h e c a m e . 7. I t h i n k t h e y will discuss th is film t o m o r r o w . T h is film will be discussed to m o r r o w . 8. T h e y will have discussed t h i s f ilm b y t h e t im e s h e c o m e s . T h e film will have been discussed b y t h e tim e s h e c o m e s . 1. T h e y o f te n now . 9. 2. T h e y R e w r ite th e a c tiv e s e n t e n c e s a s p a ssiv e o n e s an d tr a n s la te Example M y r e la tiv e s are constructing t h e h o u s e . — T h e h o u s e is being constructed b y m y re la tiv e s Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 60 1 G e n e ra l c o n tr a c to r s b u ild re s id e n tia l, in d u s tria l a n d c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g s . 2. T h e y w e re s p e c ia liz in g in o n e ty p e o f c o n s tr u c tio n a t t h a t tim e 3. T h e y h a v e j u s t o b ta in e d s o m e o r d e r s f o r t h e i r w o rk fro m th e g e n e ra l c o n t r a c t o r 4 T h e e le c tr ic ia n s in s ta lle d th e b u ild in g e le c tn c a l s y ste m s la st w e e k . 5. T h e in s u la tio n w o rk e rs h a d c o v e re d s tru c tu re s w ith in s u la tin g m a te n a ls b y th e e n d o f th e w e e k . 6. T h e p lu m b e rs a re m a in ta in in g m a n y d iffe re n t ty p e s o f pi p e system s n o w . 7. T h e p la ste re rs will a p p ly c o n c re te to e x te n o r w a lls in a w e e k 8 T h e y w ill h a v e p l a n n e d th e jo b b y th e e n d o f th e m o n t h 1 0 . C o m p le te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . U s e th e p a ssiv e form (S im p le , C o n tin u o u s o r P e r fe c t) o f th e verb s in th e b r a c k e ts. 1. T h e w o r k _______ ( e x e c u te ) in t e a m n o w . 2. T h e firs t b u ild in g s _________ ( c o n s t r u c t ) b y h a n d o r w ith s im p le to o ls . 3 B y 19 9 3 , 1.5 m illio n c o u n c il h o u s e s _________ (s e ll) i n G r e a t B n t a i n . 4 . T h e c o m p o n e n t s _________ ( p r e f a b n c a t e ) , in c lu d in g a ll w e ld e d j o i n t s , b y t h e tim e th e c o n s t r u c t i o n b e g in s . 5. In th e n e a r f u tu re , th e p r e s e n t s tru c tu re o f B u ild in g C o n s tr u c tio n s tu d ie s _________ (m o d ify ) b y th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f B o lo g n a P ro c e s s . 6. T e c h n ic a l c h a n g e s in th e b u ild in g in d u s t r y _______( s tim u la te ) b y la rg e h o u s in g p ro g ra m s in th e re c e n t y ears. 7. T h e h o t e l _________ (b u ild ) o n th e e d g e o f th e la k e a t t h a t tim e la st y e a r. 8. C o n s tru c tio n w o r k e r s _________ ( e m p lo y ) in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y a n d w o rk p re d o m in a te ly o n c o n s tr u c tio n site s. 1 1 . R e a d and tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s in to R u ssia n p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e p r e d ic a te s u sed in th e P a s s iv e V o ic e . A) Example A t m o s t u n iv e rsitie s t h e a c a d e m ic y e a r is divided in to th re e te rm s . — В б о л ь ш и н с т в е б р и т а н с к и х у н и в е р с и т е т о в у ч е б н ы й го л р а з ­ д е л е н /д е л и т с я н а т р и с е м е с тр а . UNIT3.JOBSINCONSTRUCTION 61 1. C o n s t r u c t i o n is u s u a lly d o n e o r c o o r d i n a t e d b y g e n e r a l c o n tr a c to r s . 2. T h e b u ild in g m a te r ia ls h a v e b e e n d e liv e r e d t o th e c o n s tr u c tio n s ite o n tim e 3. D e c is io n s re g a rd in g d a ily c o n s tr u c tio n a c tiv itie s w ill b e m a d e a t th e jo b s ite . 4. M a n a g e m e n t o f o v e rs e a s c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c ts u s u a lly e n ta ils te m p o r a r y r e s id e n c e in t h e c o u n t r y in w h ic h th e p r o je c t is b e in g c a r r i e d o u t. 5. T h e s ite s a n d v e h ic le s h a d b e e n p r o te c te d b y sig n s a n d b a rric a d e s . B) He Example was offered a 1. n e w jo b . — Е м у п р е д л о ж и л и н о в у ю р а б о т у . T h e c a r p e n t e r w ill b e s h o w n w h a t t o d o . 2. T h e s u p e r v is o r is u s u a lly b r o u g h t p a p e r s t o s ig n a t 4 o ’c lo c k in th e a f te r n o o n 3. T h e tr a d e w o r k e r h a s b e e n a s k e d t o b r in g th e to o ls . 4 T h e y w e r e m e t a t th e r a ilw a y s t a tio n b y th e ir f r ie n d s . 5. T h e p l u m b e r w a s to l d to f in is h h is w o r k o n tim e . C) Example T h e p a in tin g w a s a tte n tiv e ly lookedgt. — Н а картину вн и м а­ тельно см отрели. 1. T h e b r i c k m a s o n w a s s e n t f o r a s h e w a s th e o n ly o n e t o d o t h a t jo b . 2. E a c h s t u d e n t w a s s p o k e n t o s e p a r a te ly . 3 . T h is a u t h o r w a s r e f e r r e d t o in t h a t jo u r n a l . 4 . T h is b u ild in g m e t h o d w ill b e d e a lt w ith a t t h e n e x t s ta g e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . 5. T h e f in a l d e c is io n w a s a r r iv e d a t a f te r tw o h o u r s ’ d is c u s s io n . 12. R e a d and tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s w ith e m p h a tic in version . 1. I n c lu d e d in th is d e v e lo p m e n t o f in d iv id u a ls a re b a s ic t e c h n ic a l s k ills c o u p le d w ith a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c ia l p r o c e s s t h a t in f lu e n c e s t h e b u ild in g in d u s tr y . 2 . A t t a c h e d t o t h e o f f ic e b u i l d i n g a r e a la b o r a t o r y , a w o r k s h o p a n d a c a n t e e n . 3. C o m p l e t e d p r o p e r ly a n d e x p e d itio u s ly is e v e r y p h a s e o f th e p r o je c t. 4 . N e v e r b e f o r e h a d w e re c e iv e d s u c h r e s u lts . 5. W o r k in g a t th is d e s ig n a r e m a n y c o n s u l t a n t e x p e rts . I 62 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 1 3 . B e fo r e r e a d in g T e x t З А “ O c c u p a tio n s in th e C o n str u c tio n Ind u stry” , d isc u ss th e s e q u estio n s w ith you r g rou p m ates o r tea ch er. a) W h a t s e g m e n ts is th e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s try d iv id e d in to ? b ) W h a t a re th e g e n e ra l c o n t r a c to r s ’ re sp o n s ib ilitie s ? c ) W h a t is t h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n a g e n e ra l c o n t r a c t o r a n d a s p e c ia lty t ra d e c o n tra c to r? d ) W h a t are a s o f th e c o n s tru c tio n in d u stry a re c o n s tru c tio n tra d e s w o rk e rs e m p lo y e d in 0 e) W h o a ssists c o n s tr u c tio n tra d e s w o rk e rs? 0 g) W h a t a re c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs ’ d u tie s ? W h o is re s p o n s ib le fo r c o m p le tin g a p r o je c t o n s c h e d u le ? 1 4 . R ea d T e x t З А t o find o u t i f y o u a r e rig h t o r w r o n g . U s e th e in tr o d u c to r y p h r a se s g iv e n in U n it 1. • TEXT ЗА Occupations in the Construction In d u stry T h e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s try is d iv id e d in to t h r e e m a jo r s e g m e n ts . T h e c o n s t m c t i o n o f b u ild in g s s e g m e n t i n c lu d e s c o n t r a c t o r s c a lle d g e n e ra l c o n tr a c to r s w h o b u ild r e s id e n tia l, in d u s tr ia l, c o m m e r c ia l, a n d o t h e r b u ild in g s . H e a v y a n d civ il e n g in e e r in g c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n tr a c to r s b u ild s e w e rs , r o a d s , h ig h w a y s , b rid g e s , t u n n e ls , a n d o t h e r p ro je c ts r e la te d t o in fra s tru c tu re . S p e c ia lty tr a d e c o n tr a c to r s p e rfo rm sp e c ia liz e d activ itie s re la te d t o all ty p e s o f c o n s tru c tio n s u c h as c a r p e n tr y , p a in tin g , p l u m b in g , a n d e le c tric a l w o rk . C o n s tru c tio n is u su a lly d o n e o r c o o rd in a te d b y g e n e ra l c o n tra c to rs w h o s p e c ia liz e in o n e ty p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s u c h a s r e s id e n tia l o r c o m m e rc ia l b u ild in g . T h e y t a k e full re sp o n s ib ility fo r th e c o m p le te jo b , e x c e p t fo r s p e c ifie d p o r t i o n s o f t h e w o r k t h a t m a y b e o m itte d UNIT3.JOBSINCONSTRUCTION 63 f r o m t h e g e n e r a l c o n tr a c t. A lth o u g h g e n e ra l c o n tra c to rs m a y d o a p o rtio n o f th e w o r k w ith th e i r o w n c re w s , th e y o f te n s u b c o n tr a c t m o s t o f t h e w o r k to h e a v y c o n s t r u c t i o n o r s p e c ia lty t r a d e c o n tr a c to r s . S p e c ia lty tr a d e c o n tr a c to r s u s u a lly d o th e w o r k o f o n ly o n e tr a d e , s u c h a s p a in tin g , c a rp e n try , o r e le c tric a l w o rk , o r o f tw o o r m o r e c lo s e ly re la te d tr a d e s , s u c h a s p lu m b in g a n d h e a tin g . B e y o n d fittin g th e i r w o rk to t h a t o f th e o th e r tra d e s , sp e c ia lty t r a d e c o n tr a c to r s h a v e n o re s p o n s ib ility f o r th e s tr u c tu r e a s a w h o le . T h e y o b t a i n o r d e r s f o r t h e i r w o r k f r o m g e n e r a l c o n tr a c to r s , a r c h ite c ts , o r p r o p e r t y o w n e rs . C o n s t r u c t i o n tr a d e s w o r k e r s a r e e m p lo y e d i n a la r g e v a r ie ty o f o c c u p a t i o n s t h a t a r e in v o lv e d in a ll a s p e c ts o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y . B n c k m a s o n s b u ild a n d r e p a ir w a lls , f lo o r s , p a r t i t i o n s a n d o t h e r s t r u c tu r e s w ith b n c k , p a n e ls , c o n c r e t e b lo c k , s to n e , a n d o t h e r m a s o n r y m a te n a ls . C a r p e n te r s c o n s tr u c t, e r e c t, in s ta ll, o r r e p a i r s t r u c tu r e s m a d e o f w o o d , s u c h as p a r titio n s , p u t t i n g in d o o r s a n d w in d o w s , b u ild in g s ta ir s , a n d la y in g flo o r s . E l e c t n c i a n s in s ta ll, c o n n e c t , te s t, a n d m a i n t a i n b u ild in g e le c tr ic a l s y s te m s w h ic h c a n a ls o in c lu d e lig h tin g , c lim a te c o n t r o l , s e c u r ity , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . G la z ie r s a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r s e le c tin g , c u t t i n g , in s ta llin g , r e p la c in g , a n d r e m o v in g a ll ty p e s o f g la ss. I n s u la tio n w o r k e r s lin e a n d c o v e r s tr u c tu r e s w ith in s u la tin g m a te ria ls . P a in te r s a n d p a p e r h a n g e r s s t a i n , v a r n is h , a n d a p p ly o t h e r f in is h e s t o b u ild in g s a n d o t h e r s tr u c tu r e s a n d a p p ly d e c o r a tiv e c o v e r in g s t o w a lls a n d c e ilin g s . P lu m b e r s in s ta ll, m a i n t a i n , a n d r e p a i r m a n y d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f p i p e sy s te m s . T h e y m a y a ls o in s ta ll h e a tin g a n d c o o lin g e q u ip m e n t a n d m e c h a n ic a l c o n tr o l sy ste m s. P la ste re rs a p p ly p la s te r , c o n c r e t e , a n d s im ila r m a t e n a l s t o i n t e n o r a n d e x te r io r 64 IАнглийскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей w a lls a n d c e ilin g s . R o o fe rs r e p a ir a n d in s ta ll ro o fs m a d e o f t a r o r a s p h a lt a n d g ra v e l, ru b b e r o r t h e r m o p la s tic , m e t a l o r s h in g le s . R e in f o r c in g ir o n a n d m e ta l w o rk e rs p la c e a n d in s ta ll i r o n o r s te e l g ird e rs , c o lu m n s , a n d o t h e r s tru c tu ra l m e m b e rs t o fo r m c o m p le te d s tr u c tu r e s o r fra m e w o rk s o f b u ild in g s , b rid g e s , a n d o th e r s tru c tu r e s . L a s tly , c o n s t r u c t i o n la b o u r e r s p e r f o r m a w id e r a n g e o f p h y sic a lly d e m a n d in g ta sk s a t c o n s tru c tio n site s, s u c h a s e x c a v a tio n , w a s te re m o v a l, a n d d e m o litio n . M a n y c o n s tr u c tio n tr a d e s w o rk e rs p e r f o r m t h e i r se rv ic e s w ith th e a s s is ta n c e o f h e lp e rs . T h e s e w o rk e rs a ssist tr a d e s w o rk e rs a n d p e r f o r m d u tie s r e q u irin g less skill. F i r s t - l i n e s u p e rv is o rs a n d m a n a g e rs o f c o n s tr u c tio n t ra d e s a n d e x tr a c tio n w o rk e rs o v e rs e e tr a d e s w o rk e rs a n d h e lp e rs a n d e n s u re t h a t w o rk is d o n e w e ll, sa fe ly , a n d a c c o r d in g t o th e c o d e . T h e y p l a n t h e j o b a n d s o lv e p r o b le m s a s t h e y a rise . T h o s e w ith g o o d o ig a n iz a tio n a l skills a n d e x c e p tio n a l su p e rv iso ry a b ility m a y a d v a n c e to c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e m e n t o c c u p a tio n s , in c lu d in g p ro je c t m a n a g e r , fie ld m a n a g e r o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . T h e s e w o rk e rs a re re s p o n s ib le fo r g e ttin g a p ro je c t c o m p le te d o n s c h e d u le b y w o rk in g w ith t h e a r c h i t e c t ’s p la n s , m a k in g s u re t h a t m a te ria ls a re d e liv e re d o n tim e , a s s ig n in g w o rk , o v e rs e e in g c ra ft s u p e rv is o rs , a n d e n s u rin g t h a t e v e r y p h a s e o f t h e p r o j e c t is c o m p l e t e d p r o p e r l y a n d e x p e d itio u s ly T h e y a lso re so lv e p ro b le m s a n d m a k e s u re t h a t w o rk p ro c e e d s w ith o u t in te rru p tio n s . 15. F in d in T e x t З А th e p a r a g r a p h d e s c r ib in g d iffe r e n t c o n s tr u c tio n tr a d e s w o r k e r s’ o c c u p a tio n s and tr a n s la te it in to 1 6 . R ea d alou d p aragrap h s 2 - 3 . 17 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s . a) they o fte n s u b c o n tra c t m o s t o f th e w o rk to h e a v y c o n s tr u c tio n o r s p e c ia lty t r a d e c o n tr a c to r s . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n they r e fe r to ? и ш 3 . JOBS IN CONSTRUCTION b) 65 They o f t e n o b t a i n o r d e r s f o r t h e i r w o r k f r o m g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r s , a r c h ite c ts , o r p r o p e r t y o w n e r s W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n c) they r e f e r to ? These w o r k e r s a ssist t r a d e w o r k e r s . these r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s t h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e a d je c tiv e d) They a ls o r e so lv e p r o b le m s a n d m a k e s u r e t h a t w o r k p r o c e e d s w i th o u t in te r r u p tio n s . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n e) they r e f e r to ? They m a y a ls o in s ta ll h e a tin g a n d c o o lin g e q u i p m e n t they r e f e r to ? W h at does th e p ro n o u n 1 8 . U n d e r lin e o r m a r k th e m a in id e a s o f T e x t З А an d r e te ll it in E n g lish . 19 . S k im T e x t 3 B “ C o n s t r u c t io n M a n a g e r s ” an d tr y t o u n d erstan d w h a t it is a b o u t and w h a t in fo r m a tio n is n e w t o y o u . • TEXT 3B Construction Managers C o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e r s p la n , d ir e c t, c o o r d i n a t e , a n d b u d g e t a w id e v a r ie ty o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c ts , i n c lu d in g t h e b u ild in g o f all ty p e s o f r e s id e n tia l, c o m m e r c ia l, a n d in d u s t n a l s tr u c tu r e s , r o a d s , b r id g e s , w a s te w a te r t r e a t m e n t p la n ts , a n d s c h o o ls a n d h o s p ita ls . C o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e r s m a y s u p e rv is e a n e n tir e p r o je c t o r j u s t p a r t o f o n e . T h e y s c h e d u le a n d c o o r d i n a t e a ll d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n p ro c e s s e s , in c lu d in g th e s e le c tio n , h in n g , a n d o v e rs ig h t o f sp e c ia lty t r a d e c o n tr a c to r s , s u c h a s c a r p e n tr y , p lu m b in g , o r e le c tr ic a l, b u t t h e y d o n o t u s u a lly d o a n y a c tu a l c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e s tr u c tu r e . C o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e r s a re m a n a g e r s w h o o v e rs e e c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e rv is o rs a n d p e r s o n n e l. T h e y a r e o f te n c a lle d p r o je c t m a n a g e r s , 3 Зак 312 бб I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o n s tr u c to r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , p r o je c t e n g in e e r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e rv is o rs , o r g e n e ra l c o n tr a c to r s . T h e se m a n a g e rs c o o rd in a te a n d su p e rv ise th e c o n s tru c tio n p ro c e ss fro m t h e c o n c e p tu a l d e v e lo p m e n t s ta g e t h r o u g h f in a l c o n s tr u c tio n , m a k in g s u re th a t t h e p ro je c t g e ts c o m p le te d o n tim e a n d w ith in th e b u d g e t. T h e y o fte n w o rk w ith e n g in e e rs , a rc h ite c ts , a n d o th e r s w h o a re in v o lv e d in th e p ro c e s s . G iv e n th e d e s ig n s fo r b u ild in g s , ro a d s , b rid g e s , o r o t h e r p ro je c ts , c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs s u p e rv is e th e p l a n n in g , s c h e d u lin g , a n d i m p le m e n ta tio n o f th o s e d e sig n s. L a rg e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c ts , s u c h a s a n o ffic e b u ild in g o r a n in d u s t n a l c o m p le x , a r e o f te n to o c o m p l i c a t e d f o r o n e p e r s o n to m a n a g e . A c c o rd in g ly , t h e s e p r o je c ts a re d iv id e d in t o v a rio u s s e g m e n ts : s ite p r e p a r a t i o n , in c lu d in g c le a r in g a n d e x c a v a tio n o f th e l a n d , in s ta llin g s e w a g e s y s te m s , a n d l a n d s c a p in g a n d r o a d c o n s t r u c tio n ; b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n , in c lu d in g la y in g f o u n d a tio n s a n d e r e c tin g t h e s t r u c t u r a l fra m e w o r k , f lo o rs , w a lls, a n d ro o fs ; a n d b u i l d i n g s y s te m s , i n c l u d i n g p r o t e c t i n g a g a i n s t f ir e a n d in s ta llin g e le c t r i c a l , p l u m b i n g , a n d a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s te m s . C o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs m a y b e in c h a ig e o f o n e o r s e v e ra l o f th e s e ac tiv itie s. C o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs d e te r m in e th e b e s t w a y t o g e t m a te ria ls t o t h e s ite a n d th e m o s t c o s t - e f f e c tiv e p l a n fo r c o m p l e t i n g t h e p r o je c t. T h e y d iv id e a ll r e q u i r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite a c tiv itie s i n t o lo g ic a l s te p s , e s t im a tin g a n d b u d g e tin g t h e t im e r e q u ir e d t o m e e t e s ta b l i s h e d d e a d l i n e s . D o i n g t h i s m a y r e q u i r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d s c h e d u lin g a n d c o s t- e s t i m a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s u s in g c o m p u t e r s w ith s p e c ia liz e d s o ftw a re . C o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs a ls o m a n a g e th e s e le c tio n o f g e n e r a l c o n tra c to rs a n d tr a d e c o n tr a c to r s to c o m p le te sp e c ific p h a s e s o f th e p ro je c t w h ic h c o u ld in c lu d e e v e ry th in g fro m s tru c tu ra l m e ta lw o rk in g a n d p l u m b in g t o p a in tin g , in s ta llin g e le c tr ic ity a n d c a rp e tin g . C o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs d e te r m in e th e la b o u r r e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e p r o je c t a n d , in s o m e c a s e s , s u p e rv is e t h e h ir in g a n d d is m is s a l o f w o rk e rs . T h e y o v e rs e e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a ll t r a d e c o n t r a c t o r s UNIT 3 . JOBS IN CONSTRUCTION 67 a n d a r e re s p o n s ib le f o r e n s u r in g t h a t a ll w o r k is c o m p l e t e d o n s c h e d u le . C o n s tru c tio n m a n a g e rs d ire c t a n d m o n ito r th e p ro g re ss o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a c tiv itie s th r o u g h c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e r v is o r s o r o t h e r c o n s tru c tio n m a n a g e rs n e c e ssa ry T h e y a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r o b t a in in g a ll lic e n s e s a n d , d e p e n d in g upon th e c o n tr a c tu a l a r r a n g e m e n ts , f o r d ir e c tin g o r m o n i t o r i n g in c o m p l i a n c e w ith b u ild in g a n d s a fe ty c o d e s , o t h e r r e g u la tio n s , a n d r e q u ir e m e n ts s e t b y th e p r o je c t in s u r e r s . T h e y a lso o v e r s e e t h e d e liv e r y a n d u s e o f m a te ria ls , to o ls , a n d e q u ip m e n t, w o rk e rs ’ s a fe ty a n d p ro d u c tiv ity , a n d t h e q u a lity o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n . W o r k in g o u t o f a m a in o ffic e o r o u t o f a fie ld o ffic e a t th e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite , c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e r s m o n i t o r t h e o v e r a ll c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t . D e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g d a ily c o n s t r u c t i o n a c tiv itie s a r e g e n e r a lly m a d e a t t h e jo b s ite . M a n a g e rs m ig h t tra v e l c o n s id e r a b ly w h e n th e c o n s tr u c tio n site is n o t c lo s e t o t h e i r m a in o ffic e o r w h e n t h e y a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r a c tiv itie s a t t w o o r m o r e sites. M a n a g e m e n t o f o v e rse a s c o n s tr u c tio n p r o je c ts u su a lly e n ta ils te m p o r a r y r e s id e n c e in th e c o u n tr y in w h ic h t h e p r o je c t is b e in g e a r n e d o u t. 2 0 . F in d in T e x t 3 B th e in fo r m a tio n a b o u t c o n s t r u c t io n m a n a g e r s ’ d u tie s and r e sp o n sib ilitie s in t h e fo llo w in g a r e a s an d d e sc r ib e them : a ) d e s ig n p r o c e s s c o o r d in a tio n ; b ) s u p e r v is io n o f a p r o je c t; c ) c o n t r a c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n ts ; d ) p e r s o n n e l ’s s e le c tio n a n d o v e rs e e in g ; e ) c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite a c tiv itie s . 2 1 . S a y w h e th e r y o u a g r e e o r d isa g r e e w ith th e v ie w s e x p r e sse d in T e x t 3 B . P r o v e y o u r p o in ts o f v ie w . 3* 68 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 22. R ea d T e x t З С “ C o n s tr u c tio n S ite S a fe ty ” and find th e a n sw e r s to th e s e q u e s tio n s . D is c u s s y o u r a n sw ers w ith y o u r gro u p m a tes or te a c h e r . a) W h y is c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s id e r e d to b e t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s w o rk in g are a ? b ) W h y is it d iffic u lt to c o n t r o l w o rk e n v iro n m e n t? c) W h a t a re th e m a in s a fe ty h a z a r d s o n site? d ) W h o is re g a rd e d as a n o n - w o r k e r ? e) W h a t a re s a fe ty sig n s a n d b a rr ic a d e s u r g e n tly re q u ir e d a t c o n s tr u c tio n sites? f) W h a t re g u la tio n s a n d o r g a n iz a tio n s p la c e r e q u ir e m e n ts o n e m p lo y e rs to p ro te c t w o rk e rs ’ safety ? • TEXT 3C Construction S ite S afety C o n s tr u c tio n is t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s la n d b a s e d w o rk s e c t o r in E u ro p e (th e fish in g in d u stry b e in g m o re d an g e ro u s). I n th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , t h e fa ta l a c c id e n t r a t e is n e a r ly 13 w o rk e rs p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 as a g a in s t 5 p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 fo r th e a ll s e c to r av e ra g e . I n th e U .S . t h e r e w e re 1 ,2 2 5 fa ta l o c c u p a tio n a l in ju rie s in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s e c to r in 2 0 0 1 w ith a n in c id e n c e r a te o f 13.3 p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 e m p lo y e d w o rk e rs . F o r t h e s a m e y e a r th e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y e x p e r ie n c e d 4 8 1 ,4 0 0 n o n f a ta l in ju rie s a n d illn e sse s a t a ra te o f 7 .9 p e r 100 fu ll- tim e w o rk e rs in th e in d u s tiy . C o n s t r u c t i o n h a s a b o u t 6 % o f U .S . w o rk e rs , b u t 2 0 % o f t h e f a ta litie s — t h e la rg e s t n u m b e r o f f a ta litie s r e p o r te d fo r a n y in d u s tiy s e c to r. T h e p r o b le m is n o t th a t th e h a z a rd s a n d risk s a re u n k n o w n , it is t h a t th e y a re v e ry d iffic u lt t o c o n tr o l in a c o n s ta n tly c h a n g in g w o rk e n v iro n m e n t. T h e le a d in g s a fe ty h a z a r d s o n s ite a re falls f ro m h e ig h t, m o t o r v e h ic le c ra sh e s, e le c tro c u tio n , m a c h in e s , a n d b e in g s tru c k b y fallin g o b je c ts . S o m e o f t h e m a in h e a l t h h a z a r d s o n s ite a re a s b e s to s , s o lv e n ts , n o is e , a n d m a n u a l h a n d lin g a c tiv itie s . UNIT 3. JOBS IN CONSTRUCTION M a n y c o n s tr u c tio n site s c a n n o t c o m p le te ly e x c lu d e n o n -w o rk e rs . R o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite s m u s t o f te n a llo w tr a f f ic t o p a s s th r o u g h . T h is p la c e s n o n - w o r k e r s a t s o m e d e g r e e o f n s k . R o a d c o n s tr u c tio n s ite s a re b lo c k e d - o f f a n d tra ffic is r e d ir e c te d . T h e s ite s a n d v e h ic le s a r e p r o t e c t e d b y s ig n s a n d b a r r ic a d e s . H o w e v e r, s o m e tim e s e v e n th e s e sig n s a n d b a rric a d e s c a n b e a h a z a rd to v e h ic le tr a f f ic . F o r e x a m p le , im p r o p e r ly d e s ig n e d b a r r ic a d e s c a n c a u s e c a r s t h a t s t n k e t h e m t o ro ll o v e r o r e v e n b e t h r o w n in to t h e a ir. E v e n a s im p le s a f e ty s ig n c a n p e n e t r a t e th e w in d s h ie ld o r r o o f o f a c a r if h i t f r o m c e r ta in a n g le s. U n d e r E u r o p e a n U n i o n L a w , th e r e a r e E u r o p e a n U n i o n D ir e c tiv e s in p l a c e t o p r o t e c t w o r k e r s , n o ta b ly D ir e c tiv e 8 9 /3 9 1 ( t h e F r a m e w o r k D ir e c tiv e ) a n d D ir e c tiv e 9 2 /5 7 ( th e T e m p o r a r y a n d M o b ile S ite s D ir e c tiv e ) . T h is le g is la tio n is tr a n s p o s e d in to t h e M e m b e r S ta te s a n d p la c e s r e q u ir e m e n ts o n e m p lo y e r s a n d o th e r s t o a sse ss a n d p r o t e c t w o r k e r s ’ h e a lth a n d sa fe ty . I n t h e U n i t e d S ta te s t h e O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e ty a n d H e a l t h A d m in is tr a tio n se ts a n d e n fo rc e s th e sta n d a r d s c o n c e r n in g w o rk p la c e sa fe ty a n d h e a lth . * 23. a) SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKIN G L is te n t o th e T e x t “ C o n str u c tio n C a r e e r s ” . A n sw e r t h e q u e stio n s t h a t fo llo w . 1. A r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c a r e e r s t h e s a m e in d if f e r e n t c o u n tr ie s ? 2 . W h a t is th e f irst tie r o f c o n s tr u c tio n c a r e e r s c h a r a c te r iz e d b y ? 3 . W h a t is s p e c if ic o f t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f c o n s t r u c t i o n c a r e e r s ? 4 . W h a t is t h e t h i r d t i e r o f c o n s t r u c t i o n c a r e e r s b a s e d o n ? 5 . H o w a re f u r th e r e d u c a tio n q u a lific a tio n s o b ta in e d in B r ita in ? 6. H ow m a n y c o n s tr u c tio n - r e la te d a p p r e n tic e s h ip s w e re c o m m e n c e d in B r ita in in 2 0 0 7 ? 7. W h a t p r o f e s s io n s r e q u ir e m o r e le g a l r e s p o n s ib ility ? 70 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей b) Check your answers with your groupmates and Tapescript ЗА of the Text. Look up the words you do not know in the dictionary. c) Retell the Text about different construction careers. d) Tell your groupmates about any construction career your relatives or friends made. 24. Listen to the Text "Construction Engineers”. a) As you listen, make notes under the following headings. 1 The areas in which construction engineers are involved. 2. The design o f structures in the 19th - 21st centuries 3 Construction engineers’ role on the building site 4, Construction engineers’ skills. b) Check your answers with your groupmates and Tapescript 3B of the Text. Look up the words you do not know in the dictionary. c) Retell the Text about construction engineers’ responsibilities. UNIT 4 A LIVING PLACE SECTION 1 ffl VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1. R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e th e a c tiv e v o c a b u la r y t o th e t e x t “ B u ild in g S t y le s ” a n d tr a n s la te th e g iv e n s e n t e n c e s . 1. r a n g e [ 'r e in tf e ] n v — ряд, серия, д и ап азон , интервал, предел; к о лебаться в пределах, класси ф и ц и р о в ать, п р о ­ стираться W e w ill c o n t i n u e w i t h o u r p l a n n e d a g g r e g a te ranges in range o f p r o d u c ts . C o u r s e s iz e f r o m 2 0 m m t o 4 0 m m . 2 . add v — д о б а в л я т ь , п р и б а в л я т ь , п р и с о е д и н я т ь a d d itiv e [ 'a e d a tiv ] a d d itio n [ 'a e d if n ] n — добавка, п рисадка, n — добавка, присадка прим есь in a d d itio n to — в д о п о л н е н и е к , к р о м е т о г о , к т о м у ж е I f th e re s is ta n c e o f a ll th e e le m e n ts o f th e r o o f s tr u c tu r e is added, th is g iv e s t h e t o t a l o r o v e r a ll th e r m a l r e s is ta n c e . T h is is t h e m o s t e f f e c tiv e p r o t e c t i o n a g a in s t fre e z in g w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f h a r m f u l c h e m ic a l additives. In addition to g iv in g a g e n e r a l in tr o d u c t i o n t o c o m p u te r s , th e c o u r s e a ls o p r o v id e s p r a c tic a l e x p e r ie n c e . 3 . d w ellin g n — ж илищ е, индивидуальны й ж илой дом T h e c ity p la n m u s t b e fle x ib le s o t h a t it m a y r e n e w its dwellings. Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 72 4. m a n s io n [ 'm a e n f n j A handsom e 5 п — ж илой дом , особняк mansion w as e r e c te d u p o n a n e w site. c o n d o m in iu m [ ( k o n d a 'm in i3 m ] n — амер. м н о г о к в а р т и р ­ н ы й д о м (в к о т о р о м к в а р т и р ы н а х о д я т с я в ч а с т н о м в л а ­ дении) T h is is a lu x u rio u s p n v a te condominium c o m p r is in g 16 v illas w ith p riv a te g a rd e n s a n d a lso a la rg e s w im m in g p o o l. 6. te n e m e n t [ 't e n o m o n t ] n — м н огокварти рн ы й дом , сда­ ваем ы й в аренду The tenement b lo c k s o n e a c h s id e o f th e s tr e e t, c o m p r is in g 21 fla ts , a re to b e s o ld off. 7. b lo c k o f fla ts — м н о г о к в а р т и р н ы й ж и л о й д о м M an y new blocks o f flats a re t o b e b u ilt a c c o r d in g t o t h e n e w d e v e lo p m e n t p la n . 8. tim ber-fram ed b o u se — д е р е в я н н ы й к а р к а с н ы й д о м d eta ch ed h o u se [d i'ta e tft] — о т д е л ь н о с т о я щ и й ж и л о й д о м se m i-d e ta c h e d h o u se (s e m is ) — д о м и з д в у х к в а р т и р d u p lex h o u s e [ 'd j u .p l e k s ] — амер. д в у х э т а ж н ы й д о м , д о м - д у п л е к с (с к в а р т и р а м и , р а с п о л о ж е н н ы м и о д н а н а д д ругой ) r a n c h -s ty le h o u s e [ 'r a m t f s t a i l ] — д о м т и п а р а н ч о ap a rtm en t h o u s e [o 'p c n tm o n t] — м н о г о к в а р т и р н ы й д о м m o b ile h o u se [ 'm a u b a il] — п е р е д в и ж н о й д о м terra ced h o u s e s [ 't e r o s t ] — д о м а р я д о в о й з а с т р о й к и P e o p le in t h e w o r ld ’s c o ld e s t c lim a te s p r e f e r t o liv e in timberframe houses. M a n y B ritis h p e o p le t h i n k t h a t a detached house is t h e b e s t ty p e o f h o u s e to h a v e P lo t 5 is a t h r e e b e d r o o m semi­ detached house w ith p a rk in g s p a c e . T h is b e d r o o m duplex house is lo c a te d ju s t 10 m e te rs fro m th e sea. A 15th c e n tu r y to w e r is a tta c h e d UNIT 4 . A LIVING PLACE to a n e a t 73 ranch-style house. Apartment houses a re m o s tly b u ilt t o Mobile houses h a v e v e r y s m a ll w h e e ls a n d s u it u r b a n c o n d i t i o n s a re r a r e ly m o v e d f r o m t h e i r u s u a l p la c e 9. s tu d io ['stju .-d isu ] (sy n .) lo ft n — одноком натная квар­ тира A la rg e studio a p a r t m e n t in th is b lo c k is lo c a te d w i t h i n w a lk in g d is ta n c e t o t h e tu b e . 10. h o u sin g e s t a t e [ l 's t e i t ] — р а й о н ж и л о й з а с т р о й к и L a rg e m o d e m housing estates a d ja c e n t t o th e s c h o o l c o n tr a s t w ith t h e f a r m la n d o p p o s ite th e site . 11. h o u sin g d e v e lo p m e n t — з а с т р о й к а ж и л о г о к в а р т а л а T h e s ite s a r e b a s e d w i t h i n t h e E a s t o f S c o tla n d a n d a r e m a in ly la rg e v o lu m e housing developments. 12. tile d r o o f [ T a ile d ] — ч е р е п и ч н а я к р ы ш а p o in te d r o o f — о с т р о к о н е ч н а я к р ы ш а , о с т р о в е р х а я кры ш а t h a tc h e d r o o f ['G a e tft] — с о л о м е н н а я , т р о с т н и к о в а я кры ш а T h is r e d b r i c k h o u s e b u ilt w ith a tiled roof is s itu a te d in a n ic e a r e a w ith a g a r d e n s h e d . I t is a h u g e , h a n d s o m e b u ild in g w ith a a pointed roof. T h e w a lls a n d thatched roof. c e n t r a l r in g o f s le n d e r i r o n p illa r s s u p p o r tin g c o tta g e l o o k e d s o s tr a n g e w ith its lo w w h ite 13. e x te n d [ i k 's t e n d ] v — р а с ш и р я т ь ( д о м и т . п .) , у д л и н я т ь T h e w a lls c a n b e m o v e d a n d r e c o n s t r u c t e d 14. r a th e r th a n ['г с и З э ] — а н е , в м е с т о I c a n d o it n o w rather than to m o rro w . to extend t h e shop. 74 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 15. d esp ite [ d i 's p a i t ] Despite s u rp lu s prep — несм отря на h o u s in g o n t h e m a r k e t, m a n y fa m ilie s s till re ly o n so c ia l h o u s in g c o n s tru c tio n . 16. co n ta in [ k a n 't e i n ] v — с о д е р ж а т ь , в к л ю ч а т ь , в м е щ а т ь T h e f o r m u la in c lu d e s s a n d a n d m in e r a ls w h ic h contain o x id e s o f a l u m in u m , iro n c a lc iu m a n d m a g n e s iu m . 17. d a te (fro m ) v — с у щ е с т в о в а т ь (с к а к о г о - л . в р е м е н и ) , о т н о с и т ь с я к о п р е д е л е н н о м у в р е м е н и , в е с т и н а ч а л о (о т ч е г о -л .) dates from V ic to r ia n T h is ty p e o f h o u s e tim e s . 18. pull dow n v — с н о с и т ь (с о о р у ж е н и е ) In o ld to w n s a n d c itie s t h e h o u s e s w h ic h n o lo n g e r m e e t m o d e m re q u ir e m e n ts have been pulled down. 19. s im ila r (t o ) [ 's i m o b ] adj — подобны й, схож ий, по­ хож ий sim ila rity [^ s im o 'Ia e ro ti] M y h o u s e is similar to n— по д о б и е, сходство y o u rs . H o w m u c h similarity is th e r e b e tw e e n th e s e tw o b u ild in g styles? 20. c lo s e (to ) [ 'k la u s ] adv — б л и зк о C e m e n t s h o u ld b e s to re d as 2. close to t h e m ix e rs as p o ssib le . R ea d and tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o rd s. L o o k up th e ir tra n scrip tio n s in th e d ictio n a ry i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p a rt o f s p e e c h P u b lic n, m o b ile p a ir n, adj, adj, n, n, b u n g a lo w n, adj, p ro fe s s io n a l adj, m o d e r n iz e s ty le s e p a r a te n, t r a ile r a s s o c ia te v, a p a r tm e n t n, c o tta g e b a s ic adj, v, p lu s adv, c h a r a c t e r n, e x tre m e ly UN IT4 . A LIVING PLACE p o p u l a r adj, s t a r t v, d o u b le e q u iv a le n t adj. 3. 75 adj, a s b e s to s n, d r a in a g e n, fix v, M a t c h th e p a ir s o f sy n o n y m s fr o m A and В and t r a n s la te A В 1. c lo s e a. r e s e m b la n c e 2 . e x te n d b . i n c lu d e 3. s tu d io c. hou se 4 . s im ila r ity d . le n g th e n 5. s e m i - d e t a c h e d h o u s e e . im p re s s iv e h o u s e 6 . d w e llin g f. v a r ie ty 7. r a n g e g. n e a r 8. c o n t a i n h . s e m is 9. m a n s io n l. a d d itiv e 10. a d d itio n j . lo f t 4 . M a t c h th e verb o n th e le ft w ith a su ita b le ite m o n r ig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1. la y a. c h e m ic a l a d d itiv e s 2. b u ild b . a n a p a r t m e n t in a t e n e m e n t 3. r a n g e c . f r o m t h e 1 0 th c e n tu r y A D 4. u se d. a tile d r o o f 5. liv e e. d o w n a n o ld b l o c k o f fla ts 6. d a te f. in q u a n tity a n d in te n s ity 7. s e ll g. f a s h io n a b le w ith p e o p le 8. p u ll h . o f f a r a n c h - s ty le h o u s e 9. re n t i. in a n a p a r t m e n t h o u s e 10. b e c o m e j . a ti m b e r - f r a m e d h o u s e Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 76 5 . M a k e th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o m p le te b y tr a n sla tin g th e w ords and p h ra ses in b r a ck ets. I. T h e m a p s h o w s th e ra n g e o f (з а с т р о й к и ж и л ы х к в а р т а л о в ) a r o u n d M a n h a tta n . 2. T e c h n ic a lly , а ( м н о г о к в а р т и р н ы й д о м , в к о т о р о м к в а р т и р ы н а х о д я т с я в ч а с т н о м в л а д е н и и ) is а c o lle c tio n o f in d iv id u a l h o m e u n its a lo n g w ith t h e la n d u p o n w h ic h t h e y s it 3. L a rg e n u m b e r s o f (д о м а р я д о в о й з а с т р о й к и ) w e re b u ilt in t h e s u b u rb s o f la rg e A u s tra lia n c itie s in th e 1850s 4. ( К р о ­ м е ) b u y in g a n d s e llin g u s e d tru c k s , t h e c o m p a n y is a ls o a d e a le r fo r n e w c o n s tr u c tio n e q u i p m e n t . 5. T h e d e c is io n w a s t a k e n fo r p o litic a l (а н е ) m ilita ry re a s o n s . 6. A l th o u g h s te e l f r a m in g is (с х о ­ ж и й ) t r a d i t i o n a l f r a m i n g in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e c o n s tr u c tio n m a te n a ls a re v a stly d iffe re n t, a n d b u ild e rs n e e d t o b e tra in e d to u se t h e m c o rre c tly . 7. S p a c io u s a n d d ig n ifie d a p a r tm e n ts o f th e (р а й о н ж и л о й з а с т р о й к и ) a re e s p e c ia lly e x q u is ite d u e t o h ig h ly in d iv id u a l d e s ig n e r a p p r o a c h . 8 . L o o k u p a n d y o u w ill s e e o u r b u ild in g , a ta ll b u ild in g w ith а ( о с т р о к о н е ч н а я к р ы ш а ) . 9. ( Н е с м о т р я н а ) b e in g e n th u s ia s tic a b o u t h a v in g a g r e e n r o o f, w e re a lly h a d n o id e a h o w t o c o n s t r u c t o n e . 10. C o tta g e h o u s in g p ro v id e s a n o p tio n th a t p re s e rv e s th e p n v a c y a n d p e r s o n a l s p a c e o f а ( о т д е л ь н о с т о я щ и й ж и л о й д о м ) in a s m a lle r a n d le ss c o s tly u n it. 6 . R ea d and tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g g ro u p s o f s e n te n c e s pa y in g a tte n tio n to th e w o rd s in ita lic s w h ich c a n fu n c tio n a s a nou n and a verb , o r a v erb an d an a d jectiv e, o r a n o u n an d a n a d jectiv e, w ith th e s a m e fo rm . T h e y ca n h a v e sim ila r o r d ifferen t m ea n in g s. L o o k up y o u r d ictio n a ry if n e c e s s a r y . range o f b u ild in g m a te n a ls . range f r o m m o d e m t o c o u n t r y o n e s T h e y in s ta lle d a n e w e l e c t n c range. T h e s e c h u r c h e s dale f r o m t h e 1 2 th c e n tu ry . T h is c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d is v e ry u p - t o -date. I c a n ’t r e a d t h e date o n th is le tte r. 1. a. T h e c o m p a n y p u ts o u t a la rg e b . B u ild in g s ty le s c. 2. a. b. c. UNIT 4 . A LIVING PLACE 3 . a. M a n y f a m ilie s a r e in n e e d o f b e t t e r housing. b . T h a t m a c h in e s h o u ld b e p r o t e c t e d b y a m e ta l housing p r o b le m is m r e n o v a tio n T h e s h o p s close o n S u n d a y s . T h e h o u s e is close t o t h e p a r k . T h e tw o b r o t h e r s a r e v e ry close. T h e y liv e in t h e t o p flat. T h e r o o f o f th i s b u ild in g is flat H is c a r h a d a fla t ty r e c . T h e m a in 4. a. b. c. 5. a. b. c. 7. 77 housing. o f b u ild in g s . S tu d y th e fo llo w in g p a tte r n s sh o w in g th e w a y s s o m e n o u n a r e fo r m e d fr o m a d je c tiv e s and o th e r n o u n s. C o m p le te th e c h a r ts w ith n o u n s. S o m e o f th e m issin g w o r d s a r e fr o m th e t e x t s o f th e U n it. R e a d and tr a n s la te th e m in to R u ssia n . U s e y o u r d ic tio n a r y t o h e lp y o u w ith th e p r o n u n c ia tio n . Pattern 11 A d j e c tiv e /N o u n + -ia n —►N o u n T h e - ia n su ffix is u s e d f o r a p e r s o n s k ille d in o r s tu d y in g th e s ta te d su b je c t. Example', t e c h n ic a l Adjective/Noun — т е х н и ч е с к и й —> te c h n ic ia n — т е х н и к Noun e le c tr ic ______________________ h is to ric ______________________ m a th e m a tic s ______________________ o p tic a l ______________________ p o litic a l ______________________ 78 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Pattern 12 N o u n + -is t N oun T h e - i s t su ffix is u s e d fo r a p e r s o n w h o s tu d ie s , p r o d u c e s , p la y s , o r o p e ra te s . Example, e c o n o m ic s — э к о н о м и к а - » e c o n o m is t — э к о н о м и с т Noun Noun s c ie n c e ______________________ p h y sics ______________________ to u r ______________________ novel ______________________ e d u c a tio n ______________________ ty p e ______________________ Pattern 13 I A d je c tiv e + - n e s s - » N o u n | T h e - n e s s su ffix is u s e d fo r a c o n d i t i o n , q u a lity , o r d e g re e o f s o m e th in g . Example Adjective effectiv e h ap p y — с ч а с т л и в ы й —>h a p p in e s s — счастье Noun ______________________ a ttra c tiv e ______________________ aw are ______________________ k in d ______________________ frie n d ly ______________________ w eak ______________________ UNIT 4. A LIVING PLACE 79 Pattern 14 I A d je c tiv e /N o u n +- c y - > N o u n | T h e - c y su ffix is u s e d f o r a s ta te o r q u a lity . Example, a c c u r a te — т о ч н ы й —» a c c u r a c y — т о ч н о с т ь Adjective/Noun Noun d e f ic ie n t e f fic ie n t _______ dependent _______ fre q u e n t ______________________ c o n s u lta n t ______________________ p r e s id e n t ______________________ agent ______________________ © 8. SECTION 2 GRAMMAR U s e t h e m o d e l v erb s m u s t (д о л ж е н ), c a n ( м о г у , у м е ю ) , m a (м о ж н о , р а з р е ш е н о ) , sh o u ld (с л е д у е т / с о в е т / ) , o u g h t to ( с л е д у ­ е т / у п р е к / ) t o c o m p le te t h e s e n t e n c e s . T h e r e m a y b e m o r e th a n 1. I t ’s to o f a r t o w a lk f r o m h e r e t o t h e s ta tio n . Y o u ... ta k e ta x i. 2 . S a r a h g o t t h e j o b b e c a u s e s h e ... s p e a k fiv e la n g u a g e s . 3. T h e w in d o w s a r e d ir ty . I ... c l e a n t h e m . 4 . Y o u ... u s e a d ic tio n a r y . 5 . 1 lik e t h i s h o t e l r o o m . Y o u ... s e e t h e la k e f r o m t h e w in d o w . 6 . I t ’s a g o o d film . Y o u ... s e e it. 7 . H e ... ta k e m y b o o k . 8 . W e ... g o t o t h e b a n k to d a y . W e h a v e n o m o n e y . 9. W h e n y o u a r e d r iv in g , y o u ... w e a r a s e a t b e lt. 10. W e ... se e Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 80 th e la k e f r o m o u r w in d o w 11. I f y o u h a v e tim e , y o u ... v isit t h e m u s e u m . I t ’s v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . to m o r r o w . 13 12. I ... c o m e a n d s e e y o u S h e ... u s e t h i s c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . 14. Y o u r s a la r y is v e ry lo w . Y o u ... lo o k f o r a n o t h e r jo b . 15. M a r y is a v e ry in te r e s tin g p e r s o n . Y o u . m e e t h e r . 16. T a k e a n u m b r e lla w ith y o u w h e n y o u g o o u t. I t ... r a in la te r . 17 S a n d r a ... d r iv e b u t s h e h a s n ’t g o t a c a r 18. T o m o r r o w th e g a m e is v e ry im p o r ta n t f o r u s. W e . . w in . 19. S t u d e n t s ... b r in g te x tb o o k s in t o t h e e x a m in a tio n r o o m . 2 0 . I t ’s la te a n d y o u ’re v e ry tir e d . Y o u ... g o to b e d . 9 . R e fe r th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s to th e p a s t and th e fu tu re by ch a n g in g th e fo rm s o f th e m o d a l v erb s m u s t ( h a v e t o / b e to ) , c a n (c o u ld , b e a b le to ) , m a y ( b e a llo w e d to ); u se th em in th e n e g a tiv e and in te r r o g a tiv e . T r a n sla te th e s e n t e n c e s in to R u ssia n . A ) 1. H e m u s t r e a d th e b o o k . 2 . A s e c r e ta r y m u s t c o m e t o w o rk in tim e . 3. W e m u s t p a s s t h e e x a m i n a t i o n m E n g lis h . 4 . I m u s t f in is h th e tr a n s l a t i o n in tim e 5 . H e m u s t w o r k h a r d . B ) 1. S h e c a n tr a n s la te th is s e n te n c e f r o m E n g lis h in to R u s s ia n . 2 J a n e c a n c o n tin u e h e r s tu d ie s a t th e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e d e p a r tm e n t. 3. 1 c a n h ire a c a r f r o m o u r lo c a l g a r a g e 4. D r P a r k e r c a n se e y o u a t tw e lv e o n T u e s d a y . 5. T h e y c a n u se a c o m p u t e r t o d o c a lc u la tio n s . C ) 1. Y o u m a y s to p w o r k e a r ly t o d a y . 2 T h e s t u d e n ts m a y u se th is lib r a r y . 3. H e m a y ta k e m y b ik e . 4 . J o h n m a y u se m y o ffic e . 5. Y o u m a y g o h o m e a f t e r y o u r le c tu r e s . 1 0 . R e a d a n d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s w ith th e m o d a l v erb s e x p r e ssin g d e g r e e s o f c e r ta in ty a n d p o ssib ility in th e p r e se n t a n d in th e fu tu re: m u s t (н а в е р н о е , д о л ж н о б ы т ь ) , m a y /m ig h t ( в е р о я т н о , в о зм о ж н о ), c a n ’t ( н е м о ж е т б ы т ь ). 1. Н е m a y liv e in a n a p a r t m e n t in t h e d o w n to w n a r e a o f t h c ity 2. Y o u a r e a b u ild in g e n g in e e r , a r e n ’t y o u ? T h a t m u s t b e a n UNIT 4 . A LIVING PLACE 81 in te r e s tin g jo b . 3. I m a y a sk y o u t o h e lp m e la te r 4 M a ry m u s t g e t v e ry t ir e d in h e r jo b S h e d o e s th e s a m e th i n g ev e ry d a y . 5. H e m ig h t n o t b e w o rk in g t o d a y . 6 T h a t c a n ’t b e J o h n , h e is in London. 1 1 . R ea d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s w ith th e m o d a l v erb s ex p r e s s in g d e g r e e s o f c e r ta in ty , p o ssib ility o r o b lig a tio n in th e p a st. Example H e must h a v e lo st h is p e n s o m e w h e re . — О н должно быть г д е - т о по тер ял с во ю книгу. Y ou should h a v e d o n e t h a t jo b . — В а м следовало {бы) с д е л а т ь эту работу. 1. M o s t o f th e s e p i p e s m u s t h a v e b e e n h id d e n f ro m v ie w in t h e f in is h e d h o u s e . 2. C o u n c il h o u s e s w e re s o b a d ly b u ilt t h a t th e y s h o u ld h a v e b e e n p u lle d d o w n t e n y e a rs a g o . 3. T h e y c a n ’t h a v e b u ilt th e h o u s e o f t h e i r o w n o u t o f th e n e a r e s t a v a ila b le m a te ria ls . 4. T h is te c h n o lo g y m u s t h a v e b e e n a p p lie d t o a n e w ly d e s ig n e d b u ild in g . 5. T h e s e b u ild in g e x p e rts s h o u ld h a v e b e c o m e in v o lv e d m o re a c tiv e ly in th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s . 6. T h is ty p e o f h o u s e m a y n o t h a v e b e c o m e a m a n s io n . 1 2 . R ea d and tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s in to R u ssia n p a y in g a tte n tio n to th e m ea n in g and u se o f th e m o d a l verb s and th e ir eq u iv a len t fo rm s. 1. T h e f o u n d a tio n h a s t o b e s tr o n g e n o u g h t o h o l d u p th e b u ild in g . 2. W e t p la s te r m u s t b e g iv e n a fe w w e e k s t o d r y o u t b e fo re t h a t c a n b e d o n e . 3. T h e d e s ig n e r m u st p la n t h e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e p o s itio n o f th e c r a n e , th e l o c a tio n o f th e h e a v ie r lo a d s to b e lifte d , a n d t h e p o s itio n w h e re th e y a re to b e p l a c e d in th e b u ild in g . 4 . A n a p a r t m e n t w ith o n ly o n e r o o m m a y b e c a lle d a s tu d io o r a lo ft. 5. W h ile t h e f o u n d a tio n s a re b e in g b u i l t , t h e 82 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей m a in d r a in s m u s t b e la id t o c o n n e c t u p t o t h e p u b lic se w e rs. 6. T ra v e l fro m W e s te rn F ra n c e a c ro s s to th e U ra ls a n d y o u w ill be a b le t o s e e c itie s s u r r o u n d e d b y m o d e m h ig h - r is e b lo c k s o f flats. 7. H e c a n ’t h a v e f in is h e d t h a t jo b y e s te rd a y . 8 O n c e t h e f o u n d a tio n a n d flo o r w e re c o m p le te , th e m a in p a r t o f t h e h o u s e c o u ld b e b u ilt u p . 9. A ll c o n s tru c tio n p re p a ra tio n s m a y h a v e b e e n c o m p le te d last w eek 10. T h e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s a re o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t a ste e l f ra m e o u g h t to b e u s e d in th e in te re s ts o f th e s p e e d o f c o n s tr u c tio n . 11 P la s te r m ig h t b e a p p lie d s tra ig h t o n t o b a c k w a lls. 12. T h e first c o u rs e s o f b ric k s w ill h a v e to b e b u ilt c a re fu lly , fo r th e w h o le b u ild in g w ill re s t o n th e m . 13. H e a v y tim b e r s s h o u ld b e u s e d fo r s u p p o rtin g th e ro o f. 14. T h e y w ill b e a llo w e d t o b e g in w o r k in s id e th e h o u s e w h e n th e o u t e r s h e ll is c o m p le te . 16. H e s h o u ld h a v e m o v e d fr o m a h o u s e in to a b u n g a lo w . 17. S in c e t h e 198 0 s, c o u n c il t e n a n t s h a v e b e e n a b le t o b u y t h e i r o w n h o m e s v e r y c h e a p ly i f th e y h a v e liv e d in th e m fo r o v e r tw o y e a rs . 18. I f re n t s a re h ig h n e a r w h e re p e o p le w o rk , t h e y h a v e t o c o m m u t e lo n g d is ta n c e s b y c a r o r b u s e v e ry d ay . SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. B e fo r e y o u r e a d T e x t 4 A “ B u ild in g S t y le s ” , stu d y th e s ta te m e n ts g iv e n b e lo w . D o y o u th in k th e y a r e tr u e o r fa lse ? a ) T h e r e a re o n ly o ld b u ild in g s in B rita in . b ) T h e r e a re a l o t o f la rg e h o u s e s in th e U n ite d S ta te s . c ) A m e r ic a n s d o n ’t lik e t o live in c ity c e n tre s . d ) T h e r e a re a l o t o f d iffe re n t ty p e s o f h o u s e s i n t h e U S . e ) V illa g e s a re n o t p le a s a n t p la c e s t o liv e . f) A d e t a c h e d h o u s e is th e m o s t p re s tig io u s ty p e o f h o u s e . g ) A s e m i- d e ta c h e d h o u s e is t h e m o st e x p e n s iv e ty p e o f h o u s e . h ) O n ly w o r k in g p e o p le liv e in te r r a c e d h o u s e s . l) C o tta g e s a re re g a rd e d a s d r e a m h o m e s b y s o m e p e o p le , g) B lo c k s o f fla ts w e re b u ilt b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n ’t n e e d a n y re p a ir. UNIT 4 . A LIVING PLACE 14. 83 R ea d T e x t 4A . F in d th e a n sw ers to th e tr u e /fa ls e sta te m e n ts. T h e r e is o n e s ta te m e n t fo r e a c h p a r a g r a p h . D is c u s s y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. • TEXT 4A B u ild in g S tyles H o u s e s a n d p u b lic b u ild in g s in B r ita in a n d t h e U S h a v e b e e n b u i l t i n a ra n g e o f s ty le s a n d m a te r ia ls . O ld a n d n e w s t a n d s id e b y s id e . I n B r ita in t h e r e a r e tim b e r - f r a m e d h o u s e s , b u ild in g s o f b r ic k o r s t o n e , a n d m o d e m c o n c r e t e a n d g la ss s tr u c tu r e s . M a n y U S a r c h ite c tu r a l s ty le s c a m e o r ig in a lly f r o m E u r o p e . I n t h e U S t h e r e is p l e n t y o f s p a c e , e x c e p t in b ig c itie s , s o m a n y h o u s e s a r e la ig e a n d h a v e a lo t o f g a r d e n a r o u n d th e m . M o s t a r e d e t a c h e d , b u t th e r e a r e a ls o d u p le x e s . R a n c h - s ty le h o u s e s a r e b u ilt o n o n e f lo o r o n ly . M a n s io n s a re v e ry la rg e h o u s e s w h e r e n c h p e o p le liv e . S o m e ty p e s o f h o u s e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith c e r t a i n p a r t s o f th e c o u n try . N e w Y o rk C ity , fo r in s ta n c e , is f a m o u s f o r i t s b r o w n s to n e , ta ll, n a r r o w b u ild in g s n a m e d a f t e r th e m a te r ia l u s e d t o b u ild th e m . I n th e M id w e s t th e r e a re m a n y w o o d e n f r a m e h o u se s w ith p o i n t e d ro o fs. T h e S o u th h a s w o o d e n h o u s e s b u ilt b e f o r e th e C iv il W a r in t h e a n t e b e llu m s ty le . B u t a ll o v e r th e U S h o u s e s a r e b u ilt in m a n y d if f e r e n t sty le s. M a n y A m e ric a n s p r e f e r to live in t h e s u b u r b s r a t h e r t h a n in a c ity c e n tr e in o r d e r t o h a v e a p le a s a n t e n v ir o n m e n t a n d p le n ty o f s p a c e . T h e y o f t e n liv e o n h o u s in g d e v e lo p m e n ts , a re a s w h e r e all th e h o u s e s w e re b u ilt a t th e s a m e t im e a n d a r e s im ila r in s ty le . I n c itie s m a n y p e o p le r e n t a n a p a r tm e n t in a n a p a r tm e n t b u ild in g . A p a r tm e n ts u su a lly h a v e 84 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей n o m o re th a n th r e e b e d r o o m s , a n d a re o f te n re n te d fu rn is h e d . A n a p a r tm e n t w ith o n ly o n e r o o m m a y b e c a lle d a s tu d io o r a lo ft. A b u ild in g in w h ic h th e a p a r tm e n ts a re o w n e d b y t h e p e o p le w h o live in th e m is c a lle d a c o n d o m in iu m o r a c o - o p . P o o r p e o p le m a y liv e in a p a r tm e n ts in te n e m e n t s in th e d o w n to w n a r e a o f a c ity , in s m a ll, v e ry b a sic h o u s e s o r in m o b ile h o m e s . D e s p ite th e n a m e , m a n y p e o p le k e e p t h e ir m o b ile h o m e in a t r a i l e r p a r k a n d n e v e r m o v e it. M a n y p e o p le in B n ta in liv e in th e s u b u rb s c o n s is tin g o f n e w h o u sin g e states, w hile o th e rs w ere o rig in ally villages th a t h av e b e c o m e jo in e d to th e to w n as it h a s g ro w n . V illag es a re c o n s id e r e d t o b e p le a s a n t p la c e s t o liv e, a s t h e y a re q u ie t e r a n d le ss p o l l u t e d t h a n to w n s a n d a re c lo s e r to th e c o u n tr y s id e . T h e y u s u a lly c o n t a i n a ra n g e o f h o u s e s , in c lu d in g o ld c o tta g e s a n d n e w h o u s e s a n d b u n g a lo w s. M o s t h o u s e s a re b u ilt o f b n c k w ith a tile d ro o f, th o u g h s o m e a re b u ilt o f s to n e . T h e la rg e s t a n d m o s t e x p e n s iv e ty p e o f h o u s e is a d e ta c h e d h o u s e , w h ic h is n o t j o in e d to o th e r h o u s e s a n d h a s a g a r d e n all r o u n d it. D e ta c h e d h o u s e s h a v e a t le a st th r e e b e d r o o m s a n d o n e o r tw o b a th r o o m s u p s ta ir s , a n d o n e o r m o re liv in g r o o m s p lu s a s e p a ra te d in in g r o o m a n d k i t c h e n d o w n s ta irs . S e m i- d e ta c h e d h o u s e s , o r s e m is , a re e x tre m e ly c o m m o n . T h e y a re b u ilt in p a irs w ith o n e h o u s e j o i n e d t o th e o th e r a lo n g o n e sid e . T h e s e h o u se s u su ally h av e tw o o r th re e b e d ro o m s . T h e re is a se p a ra te g a r d e n a t th e f ro n t a n d th e b a c k f o r e a c h h o u se . T e r r a c e d h o u s e s d a te fr o m V ic to r ia n a n d E d w a rd ia n tim e s a n d w e re b u ilt m a in ly f o r w o r k in g - c la s s p e o p le . F o u r o r m o r e h o u s e s a re jo in e d to g e t h e r i n a ro w . T e r r a c e d h o u s e s w e re o rig in a lly q u ite sm a ll. M o s t h a v e n o w b e e n e x te n d e d a n d b a th r o o m s a d d e d , a n d in so m e to w n s th e y h av e b e c o m e fa sh io n a b le w ith p ro fe s s io n a l p e o p le . C o tta g e s a re s m a ll, v e ry o ld v illag e h o u s e s . S o m e h a v e th a tc h e d ro o fs. M a n y h a v e b e e n m o d e r n iz e d in s id e b u t still k e e p th e w o o d e n b e a m s a n d o th e r f e a tu re s t h a t a r e t h o u g h t t o g iv e t h e m c h a r a c te r . S o m e p e o p le t h i n k o f a c o u n t r y c o tta g e a s th e ir d r e a m h o m e . B u n g a lo w s h a v e o n e s to re y , a n d th is m a k e s th e m e sp e c ia lly p o p u la r w ith o ld e r p e o p l e T h e y a r e m o s tly f o u n d in v illa g e s o r o n h o u s in g e s tates. H i g h - r i s e b l o c k s o f fla ts , s o m e t i m e s o v e r 2 0 s to r e y s h i g h w ith s e v e ra l fla ts o n e a c h f l o o r , w e re b u i l t in m a n y t o w n s in t h e m i d 2 0 th ce n tu ry . M a n y h a v e s in c e b e e n p u lle d d o w n b e c a u s e th e y n e e d e d a lo t o f r e p a i r s a n d b e c a u s e p e o p l e d id n o t lik e liv in g in t h e m 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 4 A th e p a ra g ra p h s a y in g a b o u t th e ty p e o f h o u s e s m o s t B r itis h p e o p le p r e fe r t o liv e a n d t r a n s la te i t in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p a r a g r a p h s 6 —7 . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s . a) . Old a n d new s t a n d s id e b y s id e . old a n d new r e f e r t o ? W h a t d o t h e a d je c tiv e s b) They o f t e n liv e o n h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s . they r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n c) others w e re o rig in a lly v illa g e s t h a t h a v e b e c o m e j o i n e d t o t h e t o w n a s it h a s g ro w n . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n d) others r e f e r t o ? They u s u a lly c o n t a i n a ra n g e o f h o u s e s , in c lu d in g o ld c o tta g e s a n d n e w h o u s e s a n d b u n g a lo w s . W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n e) they r e f e r to ? some a r e b u i l t o f s to n e . some r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n f) this m a k e s them e s p e c ia lly p o p u l a r w i t h o l d e r p e o p le . this a n d them r e f e r t o ? W h at d o th e p ro n o u n s 86 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециаль>.<ктей 1 8 . F in d in T e x t 4 А so m e k ey w o r d s an d e x p r e s s io n s t o sp e a k a b o u t d ifferen t ty p e s o f h o u se s in G r e a t B r ita in an d th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m e r ic a . R e te ll th e T e x t in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 4 B “ B u ild in g H o u s e s ” and try t o u n d ersta n d w h a t it is ab o u t an d w h a t in fo rm a tio n is a lread y k n o w n t o y o u . • TEXT 4B Building Houses I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s ta n d h o w a h o u s e is b u i l t w e m u s t s ta r t a t th e b e g in n in g . T h e f ir s t t h i n g t o d o is t o le v e l t h e g r o u n d a n d m a k e t h e f o u n d a tio n s . T h e s e a re u su a lly m a d e o f c o n c r e t e w h ic h is p o u r e d in t o t r e n c h e s d u g in th e g r o u n d . T h e y h a v e t o b e s tr o n g e n o u g h t o h o ld u p th e b u ild in g , a n d so i t is im p o r t a n t t o p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m c r a c k in g o r s h if tin g . W h ile t h e f o u n d a tio n s a re b e in g b u ilt, th e m a in d r a in s m u st b e la id t o c o n n e c t u p t o t h e p u b lic s e w e rs. A t i m b e r - f r a m e d b u ild in g h a s c o n c r e te f o u n d a tio n w alls o n to p o f a f o o tin g o f c o n c r e te , a n d th e n t i m b e r sills w h ic h a r e a n c h o r e d t o th e c o n c r e te w h ile it is still w e t. I n b r ic k - b u ilt h o u s e s th e c o u r s e s o f b n c k s s ta r t o n t o p o f th e c o n c r e te f o u n d a tio n s . T h e firs t c o u r s e s o f b r ic k s m u s t b e b u ilt c a re fu lly , f o r th e w h o le h o u s e w ill re s t o n th e m O n c e th e f o u n d a tio n s a n d f lo o r a r e c o m p le te , th e m a in p a r t o f th e h o u s e c a n b e b u ilt u p . I n tim b e r - f r a m e d h o u s e s th e m a in su p p o rtin g jo is ts a re s o m e tim e s m a d e o f s te e l o r re in fo rc e d c o n c re te . H e a v y tim b e r s m u s t b e u s e d f o r s u p p o r tin g t h e r o o f a n d s ta ir s a n d f o r d o o r a n d w in d o w f r a m e s ; f o r th e r e s t o f t h e s tr u c tu r e lig h te r tim b e r is u se d . I n b r ic k - b u ilt h o u s e s th e w a lls are b u ilt u p in d o u b le la y e rs a n d th e w o o d e n f r a m e w o r k f o r d o o r s a n d w in d o w s a s w e ll a s UNIT 4 . A LIVING PLACE 87 t h e w o o d e n j o is ts f o r t h e flo o r s a r e in c o r p o r a t e d a s w o r k g o e s o n . A s t h e h o u s e rises it is n e c e s s a ry t o p r o v id e s c a ffo ld in g a n d p la tf o r m s f o r th e w o rk e rs t o s ta n d o n . T h is is m a d e o f s te e l tu b in g w ith p la n k s l a id a c r o s s , la d d e r s t o g o u p a n d d o w n , a n d h o is ts t o lift u p th e b u ild in g m a te r ia ls . T h e r o o f o f t h e h o u s e m a y b e fla t o r s lo p in g . R a f te r s o f w o o d a r e la id a c r o s s , w h ic h a re th e n c o v e r e d w ith s la te s o r tile s . I n s o m e p la c e s th e y a r e c a lle d s h in g le s . T h e y m a y b e m a d e o f a n y m a te r ia l t h a t is w a te r p r o o f , in c lu d in g c la y , c o n c r e te , m e ta l, a n d a s b e s to s . T h e y a re l a id s o t h a t t h e y o v e r la p a n d le t t h e w a t e r r u n o ff. A tim b e r - f r a m e d h o u s e m u s t b e c o v e r e d w ith e i t h e r tim b e r , b r ic k s , o r s o m e o t h e r c o v e r in g t o f in is h t h e w a lls . T h e r e w ill a ls o p r o b a b ly b e a n in s u la tin g la y e r o f , f o r in s t a n c e , g la s s fib r e , t o k e e p t h e h o u s e w a r m a n d d ry . T h is w ill b e p u t in b e t w e e n th e liv in g s p a c e a n d th e r o o f t o p r e v e n t h e a t e s c a p in g u p w a r d s . B r ic k b u ilt h o u s e s h a v e in s u la tio n p u t in th e c a v ity b e tw e e n th e w a lls a n d b e lo w th e ro o f. W h e n th e o u t e r s h e ll is c o m p le te , w o r k c a n b e g in in s id e th e h o u s e . T h e w alls a r e u su a lly lin e d w ith p la s te r . T h is m a y b e a p p lie d s tra ig h t o n t o b r ic k w a lls o r it m a y c o m e in th e f o r m o f p la s te r b o a r d , w h i c h is a tt a c h e d to t h e w a lls o n s t r i p s o f w o o d c a lle d b a tte n s . L a t e r it w ill b e p a i n t e d o r p a p e r e d f o r d e c o r a t i o n ; w e t p la s t e r m u s t b e g iv e n a few w e e k s t o d r y o u t b e f o r e t h a t c a n b e d o n e . P la s te r in g m u s t b e c a r e f u lly t i m e d t o f it in w i t h t h e w o r k o f th e p lu m b e r s a n d e le c tr ic ia n s . P lu m b e r s la y th e p i p e s f o r t h e w a te r s u p p ly , h e a tin g s y s te m , a n d d ra in a g e . T h e y a lso h a v e t o f ix th e d ra in a g e p ip e s o n th e o u ts id e o f t h e h o u s e , w h ic h w ill j o i n u p t o th e d r a in s a n d s e w e r s , a n d p u t i n t h e b a t h r o o m a n d k i t c h e n f ittin g s t o w h ic h t h e p i p e s a r e c o n n e c te d . M o s t o f th e s e p i p e s h a v e to b e h id d e n f r o m v ie w in th e f in is h e d h o u s e a n d s o s o m e o f th e m w ill b e f ix e d s o t h a t t h e y a r e b e h in d th e p la s te r a f te r it h a s b e e n a p p lie d , a n d s o m e w ill b e u n d e r t h e flo o r b o a r d s . S im ila rly , th e e le c tr ic w ire s a n d fittin g s w ill m o s tly b e e m b e d d e d in p la s te r o r la id u n d e r th e flo o rs . S o m e t i m e s th e w ire s a re e n c a s e d in p la s tic tu b e s w h ic h a r e la id a r o u n d th e e d g e o f 88 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей th e flo o rs a n d w in d o w fra m e s . T h e p lu m b e r a n d e le c tr ic ia n a ls o w o rk to g e th e r in in s ta llin g s u c h th in g s a s c e n tr a l- h e a tin g b o ile rs . A t th e s a m e tim e , c a r p e n te r s w ill b e w o rk in g in s id e th e h o u s e fin is h in g t h e w o o d e n flo o rs, s ta irc a s e s , w in d o w f r a m e s a n d d o o r s , a s w ell a s fittin g c u p b o a rd s . L a s t o f a ll, th e p a in te r s a n d d e c o r a to r s c o m e in to p a in t th e h o u s e in s id e a n d o u t. 2 0 . Id en tify th e to p ic o f e a c h p aragrap h o f T e x t 4 B . 2 1 . C o m p le t e t h e s e n t e n c e s c h o o s in g t h e b e s t v a r ia n t co rresp o n d in g to th e c o n te n ts o f T e x t 4 B . 1) T h e f o u n d a tio n s h av e t o b e s tro n g e n o u g h a) t o p r e v e n t th e m f r o m c ra c k in g . b ) t o le v e l th e g r o u n d . c ) to s u p p o r t th e b u ild in g . 2) T h e h o u s e w ill re s t o n a ) a c o n c r e te fo u n d a tio n . b ) th e firs t c o u rs e s o f b ric k s . c ) to p o f a fo o tin g o f c o n c r e te . 3 ) S c a ffo ld in g a n d p la tf o r m s a re p ro v id e d fo r th e w o rk e rs a) to s ta n d o n . b ) to lift u p th e b u ild in g m a te ria ls . c ) to g o u p a n d d o w n . 4 ) S la te s a re m a d e o f a ) c lay . b) w ood. c) a n y w a te r p r o o f m a te ria ls . 5 ) D ra in a g e p ip e s a re c o n n e c te d to a ) th e b a th r o o m a n d k itc h e n fittin g s. b ) th e d r a in s a n d se w e rs. c ) th e f lo o rb o a rd s 6) T h e la s t t h i n g t o d o i n t h e h o u s e is a ) t o i n s ta ll c e n t r a l h e a t i n g b o ile r s . b ) t o f in is h t h e w o o d e n flo o rs , w in d o w f ra m e s a n d d o o rs . c ) to p a in t th e h o u se . 22. R ea d T e x t 4 C “ H o u s e s a n d H o m e s ” a n d fin d th e a n sw e r s to th e s e q u e s tio n s . D is c u s s y o u r a n s w e r s w ith y o u r g ro u p m a te s . a) H o w d o y o u k n o w th a t y o u a re m a n o th e r c o u n try ? b ) W h a t w e r e t h e r e a s o n s t o c o n s t r u c t b lo c k s o f flats? c ) W h a t p r o b l e m s d o p e o p l e f a c e , liv in g in b lo c k s o f fla ts? d ) W h a t is t h e b a s ic i d e a o f h o m e f o r t h e E n g lis h ? e ) H o w d o t h e E n g lis h d i s t i n g u i s h a f la t f r o m a h o u s e ? f) W h a t is t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e w o r d s house a n d home? g ) H o w d o e s a h o u s e q u a lify a s o l d in R u s s ia a n d E n g la n d ? • TEXT 4C Houses and Homes E v e r y c o u n t r y h a s its d i s t i n c t i v e h o u s in g . C r o s s f r o m E n g l a n d in to S c o tla n d o r fro m F ra n c e in to G e r m a n y o r S p a in , a n d y o u k n o w in s ta n tly t h a t y o u a re in a n o t h e r c o u n tr y . I t is p a r t l y a m a t t e r o f a r c h ite c tu r e , p a rtly a m a tte r o f th e w ay p e o p le c h o o s e to d o m e s tic a te th e ir im m e d ia te s u rro u n d in g s. T h e E n g lis h a re d is tin c tiv e in t h e i r a v e r s i o n t o fla ts a n d t h e i r d e v o t i o n t o r o w s o f s m a ll b r ic k h o u ses. T rav el fro m W e s te r n F ra n c e a c ro s s E u ro p e to th e U ra ls a n d y o u w ill s ee c itie s s u r r o u n d e d b y m o d e m b l o c k s o f h ig h - r is e flats. T h e d etails o f a rc h ite c tu re w ill v a ry , b u t all c o u n tr ie s h a v e f o u n d t h a t th e o b v io u s so lu tio n t o c h e a p n e w h o u s in g t o a c c o m m o d a t e 90 [ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей fa m ilie s m o v in g in fr o m th e c o u n tr y s id e o r d e m a n d in g im p ro v e d c o n d itio n s w ith in th e to w n s is t o b u ild b lo c k s o f fla ts . T h e y s ta n d in ro w s a n d c lu s te rs , n o t b e a u tifu l, n o t s p a c io u s , b u t c o n v e n ie n t a n d e ffic ie n t. T h e p ro b le m s a re sim ila r: n o is e , c r a m p e d p u b lic a re a s , u n p re d ic ta b le w a te r su p p lie s , b ro k e n lifts b u t t h e y a re h o m e s f o r m illio n s o f p e o p le w h o p r e f e r th e m t o t h e m o r e p r im itiv e c o n d itio n s th e y h a v e le ft. I n E n g la n d , h o w e v e r, t h i s is n o t so. O f c o u rs e s o m e E n g lis h p e o p le e n jo y f la t-life , b u t fo r th e v a st m a jo n ty o f th e m , th e b a s ic id e a o f h o m e is a b n c k h o u s e w ith r o o m s u p s ta irs a n d d o w n s ta irs . A n d a lre a d y t h e E n g lis h h a v e a c o n fu s io n o f te rm s in tra n s la tin g to a n d fro m R u s s ia n . T h e E n g lis h u s e th e w o r d house fo r a d w e llin g in te n d e d fo r o n e fa m ily . T h e y a block o f flats t h a t it is a house, a n d h e n c e w o u ld n e v e r sa y o f “ D O M ” h a s n o e x a c t e q u iv a le n t in E n g lish . T h e y alw a y s d is tin g u is h a fla t fr o m a h o u s e , n o t b e c a u s e a h o u s e is g r a n d e r ( it m a y b e a tin y s e c tio n o f a ro w o f d w e llin g s ) b u t b e c a u s e t h e fla t is still u n u s u a l, e x c e p t i n c ity c e n tr e s w h e r e it is u n u s u a l t o liv e a n y w a y . T h e w o rd home is m u c h m o r e p e r s o n a l, m u c h w a r m e r : y o u r home is th e p la c e w h e re y o u live w h ic h y o u h a v e c re a te d — its fu rn is h in g s b u t a ls o its a t m o s p h e r e , y o u r se n s e o f o t h e r p e o p le w h o liv e in it, y o u r fe e lin g s a b o u t its p a s t a s w e ll a s its p r e s e n t. S o m e th in g o f t h e R u s s ia n fe e lin g a b o u t t h e p riv a c y o f k itc h e n s is f o u n d i n th e E n g lis h w o rd home. T h e R u s s ia n s h a v e a h a b it o f d e s c rib in g a n y th in g b u ilt b e fo re a b o u t 1955 a s “ o l d ” . I n E n g la n d a h o u s e d o e s n o t q u a lify a s o ld u n le s s it w a s b u ilt a t le a s t a h u n d r e d y e a rs a g o . T h e E n g lis h still h a v e h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f re a lly o ld h o u s e s , b u ilt b e tw e e n th e 1 4 th a n d 1 8 th c e n tu rie s s c a tte re d t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try . T h e y a re c o n s id e r e d v e ry d e s ira b le a n d a re v e ry e x p e n s iv e e v e n i f th e y a re sm a ll. M a n y o f th e m a re strik in g ly b e a u tifu l. A t t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e sc a le a re b u n g a lo w s , sm a ll b r ic k h o u s e s o f o n ly o n e s to re y , b u ilt e s p e c ia lly fo r t h e e ld e rly M a n y o l d e r p e o p le m o v e f r o m a h o u s e in t o a b u n g a lo w . UNIT 4 . A LIVING PLACE 91 SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 2 3 . L iste n to th e T e x t “ B u ild in g ” . a ) A n sw e r th e q u e stio n s th a t fo llo w . 1. W h a t d o e s b u ild in g r e f e r t o 9 2 . W h a t n e e d s d o b u ild in g s s e r v e 9 3. W h a t ty p e s o f b u ild in g s a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e t e x t 9 4 W h a t is th e r e a s o n f o r h ig h g r o u n d p r ic e s 9 5. W h a t a r e t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f m u lti- s to r e y e d b u ild in g s ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 4 A o f th e T e x t . L o o k u p th e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a r y . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t ab o u t d ifferen t ty p e s o f b u ild in g s. d ) A re th e r e an y m u lti-s to r e y e d b u ild in g s in yo u r to w n ? I f y e s , d e sc r ib e th em . 2 4 . L iste n to th e T e x t “ S k y s c r a p e r s ” . a) W h ic h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts are tr u e an d w h ic h a r e fa lse ? 1. S k y s c ra p e rs w e re d e v e lo p e d in th e 2 0 th c e n tu r y a s a re s u lt o f te c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n c e m e n t. 2. T h e g r o u n d b e n e a th th e c ity o f N e w Y o r k is n o t s o lid e n o u g h to b e a r th e w e ig h t o f s k y s c ra p e rs . 3. A m e r ic a n a rc h ite c ts w e re e x p e r im e n tin g w ith ste e l r a th e r th a n ir o n . 4 . H ig h - n s e b u ild in g s w e re re q u ire d f o r th o s e p e o p le w h o w a n te d to live a n d w o r k in a b ig a re a . 5 . S k y s c r a p e r s a re u se fu l w h e r e la n d is n o t c h e a p . 92 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 6. T h e s tre e ts in w h ic h sk y sc ra p e rs a re b u ilt m a y be o v e rc ro w d e d a t th e e n d o f th e d a y . 7. H ig h -ris e b u ild in g s d o n o t h a v e a n y d is a d v a n ta g e s . 8 . S k y s c ra p e rs c a n h a rd ly m a k e th e s u rro u n d in g s a ttra c tiv e . b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 4 B o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t ab o u t h ig h -r is e b u ild in gs. UNIT 5 BUILDING MATERIALS Ш 1. SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e t h e a c t iv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ M a t e r ia ls U s e d in B u d d in g ” an d tr a n s la te th e g iv e n s e n t e n c e s . 1. c la y [ 'k l e i ] n — гл и н а n — песок n — дерево, д ревесина, лесом атери алы lu m b er а м е р .[ Т л т Ь э ] (syn). tim b er n — п и л о м а т е р и а л , sa n d w ood строительны й лес rock n — горн ая порода, кам ень clay. M ix it w ith w a s h e d sand. M y d e s k is m a d e o f wood. T h e y g o t the lumber to b u ild a h o u s e . T o b u ild th is t u n n e l w e h a d t o c u t th r o u g h th e s o lid rock. T h e soil w a s r e m o v e d d o w n t o th e n a tu ra l 2. a p a rt fro m [ a 'p a . t ] — н е г о в о р я у ж е о , к р о м е , н е с ч и т а я Apartfrom c iv il e n g in e e r in g , m y in te r e s t is m a th e m a tic s . 3. o c c u r [ a 'k a : ] v — п р о и с х о д и т ь ; в с т р е ч а т ь с я , п о п а д а т ь с я I f a b o d y is s u b je c te d t o e x te r n a l lo a d s, d e f o r m a tio n s 4. p r o c e ss [ 'p r a u s e s ] [ p r a u 's e s ] occur in it. n v — п р о ц есс; об р аб аты вать W e a r e u s in g a n e w process to m a k e c o n c r e te . T h e in f o r m a tio n is being processed by th e c o m p u te r . 94 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 5 . la s t [ la :s t] v — п р о д о л ж а т ь с я , д л и т ь с я la s tin g — п р о ч н ы й , д о л г о в е ч н ы й , д л и т е л ь н ы й T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o tta g e lo n g e s t lasting b u ild in g m a te ria l. adj 6. d e n se lasted t w o y e a rs . S to n e is th e — п л о т н ы й , гу сто й , н е п р о н и ц а е м ы й d e n sity [ 'd e n s s t i ] — п л о т н о с т ь , к о н ц е н т р а ц и я T h e c o n c r e te , w h e n f in a lly p la c e d , m u s t b e dense a n d m u st c lo s e ly s u r r o u n d th e r e in f o r c e m e n t. A n e w in te r n a l w a ll s u r f a c e is c r e a te d u sin g a v e ry s tro n g , v ery v e rsa tile , h ig h 7. m o rta r [ 'm o :t3 ] n— строи тельн ы й раствор T h e jo i n t s a r e f ille d w ith 8. board [bD-d] n p lan k [p lserjk ] board, F o r th is density p o ly e th y le n e . mortar m a d e o f c e m e n t a n d san d . — доска, пилом атери ал, панель, лист n — п л а н к а , д о с к а (то л щ и н о й 5 - 1 0 см ) s p e c ia l ty p e s o f tim b e r s a r e c a r e f u lly c h o s e n . W h ile t h e s te e l f r a m e is b e in g e r e c t e d , th e w a ll 9 . b end n п — и зги б ан и е, сги бан и е bends e a sily . W o o d c a n b e fle x ib le u n d e r lo a d in g , k e e p in g s tr e n g th w h ile 10. fix e d . v — изгиб, ко л ен о ; изгибать, гнуть b en d in g T h e w ire planks a r e bending. m ou ld (m o ld ) [ 'm o u ld ] n — ф о р м а, п р есс-ф о р м а, о п а ­ лубка m o u ld in g (m o ld in g ) n — ф орм овка, прессование A m o lte n s u b s ta n c e , s u c h a s m e ta l, o r a p la s tic s u b s ta n c e is p o u r e d o r f o r c e d in to a mould a n d a llo w e d t o h a r d e n . The moulding o f b r ic k s a n d tile s is o n ly a p a r t o f t h e m a n u f a c tu r e o f c e r a m ic p ro d u c ts . UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 95 11. d a y b rick — г л и н я н ы й к и р п и ч c in d e r b r ic k [ s m d o ] — ш л а к о в ы й к и р п и ч , з о л ь н ы й кирпич cin d er b lo c k — б л о к и з ш л а к о б е т о н а , ш л а к о б л о к Clay bricks c a n b e f o r m e d cinder bricks w a ll m a te r ia ls , in a m o u ld in g C o m p a r e d w ith o t h e r h a v e e x c e lle n t p r o p e r tie s a n d a lo w p r ic e . L o w - c o s t b ric k s in c lu d e cinder block m a d e m o s tly w ith c o n c re te 12. a g g r e g a te [ 'a e g r ig a t] T h e m a x im u m siz e o f n — зап о л н и тел ь the aggregate s h o u ld n o t g r e a te r t h a n o n e q u a r t e r o f th e m i n i m u m th ic k n e s s o f t h e f in is h e d c o n c r e te . 13. b in d er [ 'b a i n d a ] n — вяж ущ ее, вяж ущ и й м атери ал C o n c re te is a c o m p o s ite b u ild in g m a te ria l c o m p ris e d o f a g g re g a te and a binder ( c e m e n t) . 14. s tr e n g th [stre p G ] n— прочн ость, си ла te n sile str e n g th [ 't e n s a i l ] — п р о ч н о с т ь н а р а с т я ж е н и е s tr e n g th e n ['s tre ijG n ] v — у к р е п л я т ь , у с и л и в а т ь T h re e b a s ic fa c to rs in a r c h ite c tu r e — c o n v e n ie n c e , strength a n d b e a u ty — a re alw a y s p r e s e n t a n d in te r r e la te d in th e b e s t s tru c tu re s . T h e p u r p o s e o f r e in f o r c in g is t o p ro v id e a m a te r ia l w i t h a h ig h tensile strength. T hey strengthened th e w a ll w ith m e ta l s u p p o r ts . 15. r e in fo r c e d c o n c r e te [,ri:in f o :s t'k o r ) k r i:t] — ж е л е з о б е т о н Reinforced concrete'Mas u s e d 16. b ar [b a :] n— in th e s e s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n ts . ар м ату р н ы й пруток, ар м ату р н о е ж елезо re b a r [ n 'b a : ] v — а р м а т у р н ы й с т е р ж е н ь T h is ty p e o f c o n c r e t e is s tr e n g th e n e d b y bars o f s te e l. A f te r t h e f o r m w o r k h a s b e e n in s ta lle d , a g rid o f th r e e rebars is t i e d t o t h e o u ts id e o f th e fo rm w o rk . 96 Английский язык длястудентов строительных специальностей 17. co n cern [ k a n 's s m ] п ѵ — заб ота, б еспокойство, о тн ош е­ н и е, ин тер ес; к асаться, и м еть о тн о ш ен и е, заб о ти ться, б есп окои ться co n cern in g prep — о т н о с и т е л ь н о , к а с а т е л ь н о M a n y n e w b u ild in g m a te n a ls a re e n v iro n m e n ta l h a z a rd s , w h ic h h a v e b e c o m e a b ig concern to all. H e w ro te t o m e c o n s tr u c tio n b u s in e s s . 18. availab le [з 'ѵ е іІэ Ы ] adj — concerning o u r наличны й, им ею щ ийся в рас­ поряж ении ava ila b ility [э ,ѵ еі1 э 'Ь і1 эгі] п — наличие I n s o m e lo c a litie s w a te r is available m u n l i m i t e d q u a n titie s . T h e la c k o f availability o f b u ild in g m a te ria ls le d to a d e c re a s e in n e w h o u s in g c o n s tru c tio n . 19. p ro d u ce [ p r a 'd j u : s ] v — п р о и з в о д и т ь , в ы п у с к а т ь p ro d u ct ['p ro d A k t] n — п р о д у к т , и з д е л и е m a n -m a d e prod u cts — и с к у с с т в е н н а я п р о д у к ц и я p ro d u ctio n [ p ra 'd A k J n ] T h e s e p la n ts produce larg e n— п р о и зво д ство , изготовлен и е a m o u n t s o f p r e f a b r ic a te d u n its a n d e l e m e n ts T h e la y o u t o f th e f a c to r y w ill d e p e n d o n t h e ty p e o f th e products t o b e m a n u fa c tu re d . O n e o f th e g re a te s t a d v a n ta g e s o f man­ made products is t h e i r lo w c o s t. T h e s y s te m fo r h o u s in g p r o v is io n re lie d o n th e c e n tr a liz e d production o f b u ild in g m a te ria ls . 2 0 . due to [ 'd j u : t u : ] prep H is s u c c e s s is e n tir e ly — благодаря due to h a r d w o rk . 2. R ea d and tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o rd s. L o o k up th eir tr a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p a rt o f s p e e c h . P ro d u c t m a n ip u la tio n n, n, sy n th e tic m in im a lly adj, adv. ty p ic a lly adv, c a t e g o r i z e v, p re s s v, v e r tic a lly adv, m ix tu re UNIT 5. BUILDING «, m o d e rn adj, c o m b in e v, d a m n, c ra n e n, 3. tr a n s p o r t n, p a s te cem ent MATERIALSj 97 n, c o l o u r n, o r g a n ic adj, t o l e r a n c e n, n, d e te r m in e v, c o m p r e s s io n n, c lin k e r n. M a t c h th e p a irs o f a n to n y m s fro m A a n d В a n d t r a n s la te th em . A В 1. u n o b ta in a b le a. stre n g th e n 2 . s tr a ig h te n b. d en se 3. d is p e r s e d c. m a n - m a d e 4. e n d d. co n c e rn 5 . b e a v o id e d e. b e n d 6. w e a k e n f. la s t 7. n a tu ra l g. o c c u r 8 . in d if f e r e n c e h . a v a ila b le 4. M a t c h th e n o u n (s ) o n th e le f t w ith a su ita b le ite m o n th e r ig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1. M o r t a r a. w e re p u t d o w n a s a f lo o r. 2 . B ric k s b . d e p e n d s o n th e m a te r ia l q u a lity . 3 . S te e l c. is s tr e n g th e n e d b y b a rs. 4 . C la y d . is u s e d to f o r m c la y b ric k s . 5. T h e b o a r d s e. h a s h ig h te n s ile s tr e n g th . 6 . R e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te f. is u s e d in a d h e s iv e a p p lic a tio n s . 7. C la y g . w a s p r e s s e d in t o s te e l m o u ld s . 8. A m o u ld in g h . a c ts a s a c e m e n tin g m a te r ia l, 9 . T h e b r ic k w o r k s tr e n g th 10. A b i n d e r 4 Зак 312 l. a r e p u t to g e t h e r t o f o r m a w a ll, j. is p la s tic . 98 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 5 . R e p la c e th e u n d erlin ed w o r d s w ith th e w o r d s b elo w . a) p ro cess e) a p a r t f r o m f) a g g re g a te i) la s tin g 1. b) tim b e r c ) d u e to d) bend g) p ro d u ce h ) b o a rd j ) c o n c e r n in g T h a n k s t o th is p r o je c t, s m a ll c o m p a n ie s c a n m a n u f a c tu r e a ffo rd a b le b u ild in g m a te ria ls lo c a lly , u s in g t h e i r o w n r e s o u rc e s . 2 W e h a v e a p r o b le m w ith t h e a i r t e m p e r a tu r e m th is r o o m . I t is to o c o ld . T h is is b e c a u s e o f i n a d e q u a te th e r m a l in s u la tio n . 3. T h e y e n c o u ra g e d th e re s e a rc h a c tiv itie s o n a p p ro a c h e s a n d m e th o d s w ith re g a rd t o b u ild in g m a te ria ls a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n o lo g y . 4 . T h e p ro p e rtie s o f c o n c re te a re d ire c tly re la te d t o th o s e o f its c o n s titu e n ts . 5. T h a t w as a n e w m e th o d to tr e a t c e m e n t- b a s e d b u ild in g m a te ria ls h y d ro th e rm a lly . 6. R e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te c o m e s c h e a p a n d w ill s u p p o r t s tru c tu r e s fo r a lo n g a m o u n t o f tim e , b u t it is c o n s id e r e d to b e le ss s tro n g a n d d u r a b le th a n b n c k b u ild in g s . 7. V a rio u s b u ild in g m a te ria ls a n d a u x ilia ry b u ild in g m a te r ia ls c a n b e m a n u f a c tu r e d f ro m w a s te g la ss in a n e n v ir o n m e n ta lly s o u n d w a y . E x c e p t fo r lig h t-w e ig h t c o n c r e te a n d p l a s te r th e s e a r e , a b o v e a ll, g la s s w o o l m a ts f o r p u r p o s e s o f s o u n d a n d h e a t in s u l a t i o n . 8. M o d e m w e s te rn sty le h o m e is o f te n b u ilt w ith lu m b e r f ra m e s a n d fitte d w ith b ric k s . 9 W o o d is u s e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n p u rp o s e s w h e n c u t o r p r e s s e d in to l u m b e r , s u c h a s p la n k s . 10. T h e y a re s tu d y in g a n e la s tic b e n d o f a b e a m u n d e r lo a d . 6 . R ea d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g w o rd c o m b in a tio n s w h ich c o m e from th e t e x ts o f th e U n it. M in d th e u s e o f n o u n s a s a ttr ib u te s in p r e p o sitio n . L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . C o n s tru c tio n p u rp o s e , s to n e -lik e m a te ria l, c o n c re te c o n s tr u c tio n , s te e l ro d s a n d b a rs , e x te rn a l s u rfa c e c o v e rin g , m e ta l a llo y , h e a t t o le r a n c e , p o ly u r e th a n e fo a m , w o rld w id e s c a le , b rid g e s u p p o rts , a irfie ld ru n w a y , ste e l re in f o r c e m e n t, c e m e n t la y e r, m e ta l UNIT 5 . BUILDING MATERIALS J 99 b o x - l i k e m o u l d , s t i f f - c l a y p r o c e s s , e x t r u s i o n m a c h i n e , c la y p a r tic le s , r a il tr u c k s , c a l c i u m s ilic a te b r ic k s , s a n d lim e b r ic k s , b r ic k s h a p e . 7. S tu d y th e fo llo w in g p a tte r n s sh o w in g th e w a y s s o m e n o u n s a r e form ed from o th e r n o u n s an d so m e a d je c tiv e s a r e fo rm ed from n o u n s. C o m p le te th e c h a r ts . S o m e o f t h e m issin g w o r d s a r e from th e t e x t s o f th e U n it. R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e m in to R u ssia n . U s e y o u r d ic tio n a r y t o h e lp y o u w ith th e p ro n u n c ia tio n . Pattern 15 N o u n + -s h ip - > N o u n T h e -s h ip s u ffix is u s e d f o r e s p e c ia lly a s ta tu s , c o n d i t i o n , o r sk ill. Example, c itiz e n — г р а ж д а н и н - » c itiz e n s h ip — г р а ж д а н с т в о Noun 4* Noun le a d e r ---------------------------------- s tu d e n t ---------------------------------- f r ie n d ---------------------------------- r e la tio n ---------------------------------- m em ber ---------------------------------- p a r tn e r ---------------------------------- p r o p r ie to r ---------------------------------- sp a c e ---------------------------------- Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей Pattern 16 I N o u n + -fill -> A d je c tiv e T h e -fill su ffix m e a n s fu ll Example, s u c c e s s Noun | o f o r having the quality o f the noun — у с п е х - > su ccessfu l — у с п е ш н ы й Adjective cane ______________________ pow er ______________________ d u ty ______________________ use ______________________ h a rm ______________________ Pattern 17 I N o u n + - l e s s - » A d je c tiv e T h e -le s s s uffix m e a n s Example, j without. u s e — п о л ь з а - » u s e le s s — б е с п о л е з н ы й Noun Adjective effo rt ______________________ h e lp ______________________ m e a n in g ______________________ m o tio n ______________________ hope ______________________ h a rm UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 101 Pattern 18 N o u n + - ic - » A d je c tiv e T h e - ic s u ffix m e a n s Example, like, or connected with. a to m — а т о м - > a to m ic — а т о м н ы й Noun Adjective cube ---------------------------------- econom y ---------------------------------- a c id ---------------------------------- lin g u is tic s ---------------------------------- m agnet ---------------------------------- sy m b o l ---------------------------------- b u reau crat ______________________ p a tn o t ---------------------------------- SE C T IO N 2 GRAM M AR 8. R e a d a n d tr a n s la te t h e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o t h e d iffe r e n t fo r m s o f t h e in fin itiv e an d th e ir m e a n in g . to go h o m e e a r ly to d a y . 2 . I t ’s n ic e to be sitting h e re . to have left s c h o o l. 4 . H e d o e s n ’t lik e to be interrupted w h ile h e ’s w o r k in g . 5 . 1 r e m e m b e r to have been asked t h i s q u e s tio n 6 I ’d lik e to have been sitting th e r e w h e n s h e w a lk e d in . 7 . S h e a s k e d m e not to forget to post t h e le tte r 8 . I w a s s o r r y not to have phoned y o u . 9 . W e m u s t make c a r e f u l p la n s . 10. I w o u ld r a th e r go b y m y se lf. 1. 3. I ’d lik e I ’m g la d 102I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 9. R ea d and tr a n s la te th e s e n te n c e s w ith in fin itiv es u sed as: a ) S u b ject Example To read b o o k s in b a d lig h t is h a rm fu l. — Читать к н и г и при плохом о свещ ен и и вредно. 1. Т о b e a p ro fe s s io n a l in b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n re q u ire s s tu d y a t a u n iv e rs ity o r c o lle g e . 2. T o fill th e g a p s b e tw e e n t h e c e m e n t p a rtic le s w a s v e ry i m p o r ta n t. 3. T o in c re a s e d u ra b ility o f c o n c r e te w a s n e c e s s a ry . 4 . T o s h o r te n t h e s e ttin g tim e o f c o n c r e te w a s all th a t th e y w a n te d 5. T o w o rk in b u ild in g c o n s tru c tio n w as t h e d re a m o f h is life. b ) A dverbial m o d ifier Example to master E n g lis h . — М ы д о л ж н ы м н о г о чтобы овладеть а н г л и й с к и м я з ы к о м . То improve h is E n g lis h h e w e n t t o E n g la n d . — Чтобы улуч­ шить а н г л и й с к и й я з ы к , о н п о е х а л в А н г л и ю . W e m u s t w o rk h a r d работать, 1. A fte r b e in g fo r m e d , b ric k s a re lo a d e d o n ra il tru c k s a n d p u s h e d in to d rie rs , a n d th e n in to k iln s t o b e fire d . 2. D iffe re n t fo rm s o f m o rta r w e re u s e d t o h o ld th e s to n e s to g e th e r. 3. T o p ro d u c e glass w ith d iffe re n t c o lo u rs o r c h a ra c te ris tic s a d d itiv e s a re v e ry o fte n a d d e d t o t h e m ix tu re w h e n m a k in g . 4 . T o m a k e r e in fo rc e d c o n c re te t h e ste e l ro d s a re h e ld in p o s itio n a n d t h e c o n c r e te p o u r e d ro u n d t h e m . 5. W in d o w s h a v e b e e n u s e d s in c e th e i n v e n tio n o f g lass t o c o v e r s m a ll o p e n in g s in a b u ild in g . 6 . A t i m b e r f ra m e is c o v e r e d w i t h b ric k s t o p ro v id e a n o u t e r c o v e rin g . c ) O b ject Example H e hopes р аб о ту . to find a g o o d jo b . — О н н а д е е т с я найти х о р о ш у ю UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 1. 103 C o n c r e t e is s tr o n g in its r e s is ta n c e t o lo a d s tr y in g t o c r u s h it ( c o m p r e s s io n ) , b u t m u c h w e a k e r in r e s is tin g fo r c e s t h a t t e n d t o p u ll it a p a r t ( te n s io n ) . 2 . B ric k s w e r e m o r e f la m e r e t a r d a n t t h a n w o o d , a n d c h e a p t o p r o d u c e . 3 . C o n c r e t e is p r e f e r r e d t o n a tu r a l r o c k , w h ic h is d iffic u lt t o e x tr a c t f r o m t h e g r o u n d a n d w h ic h h a s to b e w o r k e d t o t h e r e q u ir e d s h a p e . 4 . I t is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o u s e to o m u c h w a te r a s th is w ill m a k e t h e c o n c r e t e w e a k . 5 . A n y fo rc e s te n d in g t o p u ll t h e r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te a p a r t w ill b e r e s is te d b y t h e g r e a t s tr e n g th o f t h e s te e l b a rs . d ) A ttr ib u te Example to connect t h e s e t w o t o w n s is b e in g b u ilt. — Д о р о г а , которая должна соединить э т и д в а г о р о д а , с т р о и т с я . Н е г е is t h e t e x t to be translated. — В о т т е к с т , который нужно {надо) перевести. T h e ro a d 1. W in d o w s p r o v id e d h u m a n s w ith t h e a b ility t o b o t h le t lig h t in to ro o m s w h ile a t th e sa m e tim e k e e p in g in c le m e n t w e a th e r o u tsid e . 2. T h e y d e s ig n e d th e b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e s t o su c c e s s fu lly s u p p o r t a n d r e s is t t h e lo a d s w h ic h a c t o n th e m . 3 . F a c in g b r ic k s t o b e u s e d in th e o u t e r w a lls o f b u ild in g s c a n b e g iv e n a ro u g h o r te x tu r e d s u rfa c e . 4 . A r c h e s c a lle d tr u s s e s a r e u s e d t o s p a n t h e a r e a t o b e le ft o p e n . 5. T h e first d e g r e e in C iv il E n g in e e r in g to b e a w a r d e d t o a w o m a n in t h e U S A w a s g r a n te d b y C o r n e ll U n iv e r s ity t o N o r a B la tc h in 1905. e ) P a r t o f a p r e d ic a te Example to get t h e r e in tim e . добраться т у д а в о в р е м я . T h e p r o b le m w a s том , чтобы 1. — Задача состояла в A n o t h e r w a y w a s to s p a n a la r g e s p a c e w h i c h c a n b e u s e d a s a d o m e . 2. T h e e ffe c t is to c o m p r e s s th e ro w o f b lo c k s s o t h a t t h e y f o r m a b e a m o r g ir d e r . 3. T h e p r o b le m is t o c o n tr o l t h e h a z a r d s 104 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей a n d risk s t o c o n s tr u c tio n w o r k e r s m a c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g w o r k e n v ir o n m e n t. 4 . T h e m a in o b je c tiv e s o f e a r t h q u a k e e n g i n e e n n g a r e t o u n d e r s ta n d th e in te r a c tio n o f s tru c tu r e s w ith s h a k y g r o u n d a n d fo re s e e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p o s s ib le e a r th q u a k e s . 5. O n e o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n su rv e y o rs ’ ta s k s is t o su rv e y e x is tin g c o n d itio n s o f t h e fu tu re w o r k s ite . 1 0 . R e p la c e th e gro u p o f w o r d s in b o ld ty p e b y a n in fin itiv e . T r a n sla te th e s e n te n c e s . Example H e w a s the first m a n who came t o t h e p a rty . to come t o t h e p a r ty . — О н первым пришел н а 1. — H e w as the first вечеринку. J o s e p h L . L a m b o t w a s th e first m a n w h o d e v e lo p e d r e in fo rc e d c o n c r e te in F r a n c e in 1849. 2. E v e ry b o d y w a s la te e x c e p t m e . who arrived o n t i m e 3. F i o n a w a s t h e o n ly who passed th e e x a m . 4 . N e il A rm s tr o n g w a s t h e firs t m a n who walked o n t h e M o o n . 5. H e w a s t h e firs t m a n who swam t h e I w a s t h e o n ly o n e s tu d e n t E n g lis h C h a n n e l. 1 1 . R e a d and tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s p a y in g sp e c ia l a tte n tio n t o th e u se o f th e O b je c tiv e an d S u b je c tiv e In fin itiv e A ) O b je c tiv e In fin itiv e C o n str u c tio n (C o m p le x O b je c t). Example H e w a n ts I expect м не. 1 sa w I sa w парк. me to go h o m e . — О н х о ч е т , чтобы я пошел д о м о й . him to write t o m e - Я н а д е ю с ь , что он напишет them go to t h e p a rk . — Я them going to th e p a rk . I m ade him do t h a t jo b . ви дел, как они пошли в парк. — Я ви дел, как о н и ш ли в — Я застави л его сделать э т у р аботу. UNIT 5. BUILDING 1. MATERIALS 105 W e c o n s id e r u ltr a - lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e te to b e o n e o f th e m o s t f u n d a m e n ta l b u lk m a te r ia ls o f t h e f u tu r e . 2. T h e y w a n te d th e m a n a g e r t o o r g a n iz e a ll t h e w o r k e r s n e e d e d f o r c o n s tr u c tio n jo b s 3. I h e a r d y o u b r e a k s o m e th in g . W h a t w a s it? 4 . T h e y m a d e c o n s tr u c tio n w o r k e r s w e a r t h e p e r s o n a l p r o t e c t i v e e q u i p m e n t — h a r d h a ts , s t e e l - t o e b o o t s a n d h ig h v is ib ility j a c k e ts . 5 1 s a w h e r p ic k u p t h e p a r c e l, o p e n it a n d ta k e o u t a b o o k . 6 . T h e y e x p e c te d th e s tu d e n ts t o p a s s a n e x a m o n m a th e m a tic s t o s t a r t b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n s tu d ie s . 7 . I s a w b r ic k la y e r s c o n s t r u c t i n g b r ic k w o r k a n d p lu m b e r s in s ta llin g d r a in a g e sy s te m s . B ) S u b je c tiv e In fin itiv e C o n s tr u c tio n ( C o m p le x S u b je c t). Example This man is s a id to know e v e ry b o d y h e r e . — Г о в о р я т , ч т о этот человек знает з д е с ь в с е х . Не is k n o w n to be a good student. — И з в е с т н о , ч т о он хоро­ ший студент. The child s e e m e d to be sleeping. — К а з а л о с ь , ч т о р е б е н о к спит. They a r e вернутся в о 1. lik e ly to come back o n T u esd ay . — В ер о я т н о , они вторник. T h is ty p e o f c o n c r e te is k n o w n to h a v e r e in f o r c e m e n t in th e f o r m o f w ire s . 2. R e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te is s a i d t o c r a c k in t e n s i o n r a t h e r t h a n in c o m p r e s s io n . 3. S te e l r o d s a r e s u r e t o b e e m b e d d e d m t h e m ix tu r e , th u s f o r m in g r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 4 . S a n d lim e b r ic k s a r e r e p o r te d t o b e m a d e b y p r e s s in g a m ix tu r e o f m o is t s a n d a n d lim e in t o b n c k s h a p e b y m a c h in e . 5 . T h e f in a l s tr e n g th o f th e c e m e n t p a s te is lik e ly t o b e r e a c h e d in th r e e w e e k s 6 . C o n c r e te is u s u a lly c o n s id e r e d n o t to s h n n k d u e to h y d r a tio n . 106 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 12. А). Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the For-to infinitive Construction. Example He spoke loudly fo r them (the people) to hear him. — Он гово­ рил громко, чтобы они (люди) его слышали. It is necessary fo r us to do this work. — Нам необходимо сде­ лать эту работу вовремя. It is necessary fo r society to allocate resources economically. — Необходимо, чтобы общество экономно размещало ресурсы. 1. It was important for them to calculate accurately the cost of materials and labour. 2. It is necessary for building engineers to have an understanding of different technical disciplines as projects often involve many of them at the same time. 3. It makes sense for builders to use many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks for construction of buildings. 4. This makes it possible for construction people to use synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement. 5. It was possible for them to make concrete on the building site. 6. It is increasingly common for many builders to reduce the size of reinforced concrete beams if the reinforcement is stretched before the concrete is poured into position. B ) Rewrite these sentences using the For-to Infinitive Construction. Example: She can’t come. (It’s impossible ) — It’s impossible for her to come. 1. Nick shouldn’t change his job just now. (It would be a mistake ...) 2. Can Mary come to the meeting? (Is it possible ...?) 3. Pete shouldn’t go to Africa. (It’s a bad idea ...) 4. The meeting UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 107 needn’t jtart before seven. (There is no need ...) 5. I’ll be happy if you take holiday. (I’ll be happy ...) 6 . 1 want the children to go to a good school. (I’m anxious ...) 7. The car should have regular services. (It’s important...) SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. Before reading Text 5A “Materials Used in Building”, discuss these questions with your groupmates or teacher. a) What naturally occurring and man-made building materials do you know? b) What areas is the use of building materials usually segmented into? c) What is the longest lasting building material? d) What is specific of wood used in construction? e) What types of bricks do you know? What are the advantages of bricks? f) What materials are bricks made from? g) Why is concrete the predominant building material in this modem age? h) What materials is concrete made from? i) What type of buildings is metal used for? j) What did glass as a building material provide people with? k) What do you know about the use of plastics for construction purposes? l) What insulation materials are used in buildings? m) Are there any environmental problems of using and producing building materials? 108I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 14. R e a d T e x t 5 А t o fin d o u t if y o u are righ t o r w r o n g . • TEXT 5A M aterials used in Building B u ild in g m a t e r i a l is a n y m a t e r i a l w h i c h is u s e d f o r a c o n s tru c tio n p u rp o se . M any n a t u r a lly o c c u r r in g s u b s ta n c e s , s u c h a s c la y , s a n d , w o o d a n d r o c k s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o n s tr u c t b u ild in g s , A p a r t f r o m n a tu r a lly o c c u r r in g m a te r ia ls , m a n y m a n ­ m a d e p r o d u c ts a r e in u s e , s o m e m o re a n d s o m e less sy n th e tic . T h e u se o f b u ild in g m a t e r i a l s is ty p i c a l l y s e g m e n t e d i n t o s p e c if ic tr a d e s , s u c h a s c a r p e n t r y , p lu m b in g , r o o f in g a n d in s u la tio n w o rk . B u ild in g m a te r ia ls c a n b e c a te g o r iz e d in to t w o s o u r c e s , n a tu r a l a n d s y n t h e t i c . N a t u r a l b u i l d i n g m a te r ia ls a r e t h o s e t h a t a r e u n p r o c e s s e d o r m in im a lly p r o c e s s e d b y in d u s tr y ( l u m b e r o r g la ss). S y n th e tic m a te r ia ls a r e m a d e i n in d u s tr ia l s e ttin g s a f te r h u m a n m a n i p u l a t i o n s ( p la s tic s a n d p a in ts ) . R o c k is t h e lo n g e s t la s tin g b u ild in g m a te r ia l a v a ila b le . I t is a v e ry d e n s e m a te r ia l s o it g iv e s a lo t o f p r o t e c t i o n to o . D r y - s to n e w a lls h a v e b e e n b u ilt f o r a s lo n g a s h u m a n s h a v e p u t o n e s t o n e o n t o p o f a n o th e r . E v e n tu a lly d if f e r e n t fo r m s o f m o r t a r w e r e u s e d t o h o ld t h e s to n e s to g e th e r , c e m e n t b e in g th e m o s t c o m m o n p la c e n o w . W o o d is a p r o d u c t o f tr e e s a n d s o m e tim e s o t h e r f ib r o u s p la n ts u s e d f o r c o n s tr u c tio n p u r p o s e s w h e n c u t o r p r e s s e d in to lu m b e r a n d tim b e r , s u c h as b o a r d s o r p la n k s . W o o d c a n b e v e ry fle x ib le u n d e r lo a d s , k e e p in g s tr e n g th w h ile b e n d in g , a n d is in c r e d ib ly s tr o n g w h e n c o m p r e s s e d v e rtic a lly . A b n c k is a b lo c k m a d e o f k iln - f ir e d m a te r ia l, u s u a lly c la y o r s h a le . C la y b r ic k s a r e f o r m e d in a m o u ld , o r i n c o m m e r c ia l UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 109 m a n u f a c tu r e m o r e f r e q u e n tly b y e x tr u d in g c la y t h r o u g h a d ie a n d t h e n w ir e - c u ttin g t h e m t o t h e p r o p e r s iz e . B ric k s h a v e b e e n u s e d a s a b u ild in g m a te r ia l s in c e t h e 1 700s T h is w a s p r o b a b ly d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t it w a s m u c h m o r e f la m e r e ta r d a n t t h a n w o o d , a n d c h e a p t o p r o d u c e . C i n d e r b lo c k s r e p la c e d c la y b r ic k s in t h e la te 2 0 th c e n tu r y . T h e y a r e m a d e m o s tly w ith c o n c r e te . C o n c r e t e is a c o m p o s ite b u ild in g m a te r ia l m a d e f r o m t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a g g r e g a te a n d a b in d e r . A f te r m ix in g , t h e c e m e n t h y d r a te s a n d e v e n tu a lly h a r d e n s in to a s t o n e - lik e m a te r ia l. T h is is t h e m a te r ia l r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e t e r m concrete. F o r a c o n c r e te c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n y s iz e , a s c o n c r e t e h a s a lo w te n s ile s tr e n g th , it is s t r e n g th e n e d u s in g s te e l r o d s o r b a rs . T h is s t r e n g th e n e d c o n c r e te is c a lle d r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te . C o n c r e t e h a s b e e n t h e p r e d o m i n a n t b u ild in g m a te ria l in th is m o d e m a g e d u e t o its lo n g e v ity , fo rm a b ility , a n d e a s e o f tr a n s p o r t. M e ta l is u s e d a s s tr u c tu r a l f r a m e w o r k f o r la r g e r b u ild in g s s u c h a s s k y s c r a p e r s , o r a s a n e x te r n a l s u r f a c e c o v e r in g . T h e r e a r e m a n y ty p e s o f m e ta ls u s e d f o r b u ild in g . S te e l is a m e ta l a llo y w h o s e m a jo r c o m p o n e n t is iro n , a n d is th e u s u a l c h o ic e f o r m e ta l s tru c tu ra l b u ild in g m a te r ia ls . It is s tr o n g , fle x ib le , a n d i f t r e a t e d w e ll la s ts a lo n g tim e . C le a r w in d o w s h a v e b e e n u s e d s in c e t h e in v e n tio n o f g la ss t o c o v e r s m a ll o p e n in g s in a b u ild in g . T h e y p r o v id e d h u m a n s w ith t h e ab ility t o b o th let lig h t in to r o o m s w h ile a t t h e sa m e tu n e k e e p in g i n c le m e n t w e a th e r o u ts id e . G la s s w h ic h is v e r y b r ittle is g e n e r a lly m a d e f r o m m ix tu r e s o f s a n d a n d s ilic a te s in a v e r y h o t fire sto v e c a lle d a k iln . A d d itiv e s a r e v e ry o f te n a d d e d t o t h e m ix tu r e w h e n m a k in g t o p r o d u c e g lass w ith d if f e r e n t c o lo u r s o r c h a r a c te r is tic s . T h e te rm plastics c o v e rs a r a n g e o f s y n th e tic o r s e m i- s y n th e tic o r g a n ic p o ly m e r iz a tio n p r o d u c ts . P la s tic s v a r y i m m e n s e ly in h e a t to le ra n c e , h a rd n e s s , a n d r e s ilie n c y . C o m b in e d w ith th is a d a p ta b ility , th e g e n e r a l u n if o r m ity o f c o m p o s itio n a n d lig h tn e s s o f p la s tic s e n s u r e s th e ir u se in a lm o s t a ll in d u s tr ia l a p p lic a tio n s t o d a y . M o r e r e c e n tly s y n th e tic p o ly s ty r e n e o r p o l y u r e t h a n e f o a m h a s b e e n u s e d o n a lim ite d s c a le . I t is lig h t w e ig h t, e a s ily s h a p e d a n d 110 Английский языкдля студентов строительных специальностей a n e x c e lle n t in s u la to r. It is u s u a lly u s e d a s p a r t o f a s t r u c tu r a l in s u la te d p a n e l w h e r e t h e f o a m is s a n d w ic h e d b e tw e e n w o o d o r c e m e n t. N o w a d a y s th e p ro d u c tio n o f ra w m a te ria ls f o r b u ild in g p u rp o s e s is o n a w o rld w id e sc a le . E n v iro n m e n ta l c o n c e rn s a re a ls o b e c o m in g a m a jo r w o rld to p ic c o n c e rn in g t h e a v a ila b ility o f c e r ta in m a te n a ls , a n d t h e e x tr a c tio n o f s u c h la rg e q u a n titie s n e e d e d f o r t h e h u m a n h a b ita t. 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 5 A th e p a r a g r a p h s s a y in g a b o u t th e u s e an d p r o d u c tio n o f b r ic k s an d c o n c r e te in c o n str u c tio n an d tr a n sla te th e m in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d alou d p a r a g r a p h s 1 an d 2 o f T e x t 5 A . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s . a) so it g iv e s a lo t o f p r o t e c t i o n to o . it r e f e r t o ? W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n b) They a re m a d e m o s tly w ith c o n c re te . they r e f e r t o 9 W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n c) it is s tr e n g th e n e d u sin g s te e l ro d s o r b a rs. W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n / / r e f e r to ? It is s tro n g , fle x ib le , a n d i f t r e a t e d w e ll la s ts a lo n g tim e . W h a t d o e s t h e p r o n o u n it r e fe r t o ? d) e) It is lig h t w e ig h t, e a s ily s h a p e d a n d a n e x c e lle n t in s u la to r. it r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n f) It is u su a lly u s e d a s p a r t o f a s tr u c tu r a l in s u la te d p a n e l it r e f e r t o ? W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n и Ш 5 . BUILDING MATERIALS 111 1 8 . U n d e r lin e o r m ark t h e m a in id e a s o f T e x t 5 Л to sp e a k ab o u t d iffe r e n t ty p e s o f b u ild in g m a te r ia ls . R e te ll th e T e x t in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 5 B “ C o n c r e t e ” an d try t o u n d e r sta n d w h a t it is ab o u t an d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is k n o w n to y o u . • TEXT 5B Concrete C o n c r e te is a k in d o f artific ia l ro c k m a d e f r o m h y d r a u lic c e m e n t, c r u s h e d s to n e o r g ra v e l, a n d s a n d . It h a s t h e g r e a t a d v a n ta g e t h a t it c a n b e m a d e in w h a te v e r s h a p e is n e e d e d . F o r th is r e a s o n c o n c r e te is p r e f e r r e d t o n a tu r a l r o c k , w h ic h is d if f ic u lt t o e x t r a c t f r o m th e g r o u n d a n d w h ic h h a s t o b e w o r k e d to t h e r e q u ir e d s h a p e . B y m e a n s o f c o n c r e te it is p o ssib le t o f o r m s u c h p a r ts o f b u ild in g s as w a lls, flo o rs , b e a m s o r c o lu m n s , b n d g e s u p p o r t s a n d g ir d e r s , d a m s , ro a d s a n d a ir f ie ld r u n w a y s , o r b lo c k s o f s t o n e o f a n y d e s ir e d s h a p e . C o n c r e te m a y b e d e liv e r e d r e a d y - m ix e d , b u t it is o n e o f t h e fe w b u ild in g m a te n a ls t h a t c a n b e m a d e o n t h e b u i l d i n g site . I n t h e m a k in g o f c o n c r e te , t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e s a n d , g ra v e l, a n d P o r tla n d o r s im ila r c e m e n t a r e c a re fu lly m e a s u r e d . T h e s tr e n g th o f th e c o n c re te is p a r t l y d e te rm in e d by th e a m o u n t o f c e m e n t in t h e m ix tu r e . M o r e c e m e n t w o u ld g iv e a s tr o n g e r , m o r e d u r a b le m ix , b u t w o u ld be m o re e x p e n s iv e . I t is im p o r ta n t n o t t o u se to o m u c h w a t e r a s t h i s w ill m a k e t h e c o n c r e te w e a k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e c o n c re te m u st b e p a c k e d d e n s e ly in t h e m o u ld s , w h ic h c a n n o t b e d o n e if th e m ix tu r e is t o o d ry . P r o d u c in g A modern building: Boston City Hall is largely constructed of concrete, both pre-cast and poured-in-place. 112 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o n c r e t e o f g o o d q u a l i t y is t h e r e f o r e a s k ille d b u s in e s s N o w a d a y s m e c h a n ic a l v ib ra to rs a re u s e d t o m a k e s tro n g c o m p a c t c o n c r e te f ro m fa irly d r y m ix e s . C o n c r e t e is s t r o n g m its r e s is ta n c e t o lo a d s t r y i n g t o c r u s h it ( c o m p r e s s i o n ) , b u t m u c h w e a k e r in re s is tin g f o r c e s t h a t t e n d t o p u ll it a p a r t (te n s io n ). It is n o t t h e r e f o r e s u ita b le b y its e lf f o r m a k in g b e a m s o r o t h e r p a r ts lia b le t o b e b e n t o r p u lle d . T o o v e r c o m e t h i s w e a k n e s s , s te e l r o d s m a y b e e m b e d d e d in t h e m ix tu re , t h u s f o rm in g r e in fo rc e d c o n c re te . R e in fo rc e d c o n c re te w as first d ev e lo p e d m F ra n c e b y J o s e p h L . L a m b o t m 1 8 49. T o m a k e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e t h e s te e l ro d s a r e h e ld in p o s itio n a n d th e c o n c r e t e p o u r e d r o u n d th e m . T h e c o n c r e te b o n d s to t h e ste e l r e in fo rc e m e n t. A n y f o rc e s te n d in g t o p u ll t h e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e a p a r t w ill b e r e s is te d b y t h e g r e a t s t r e n g t h o f t h e s te e l ro d s , o r b a rs . N e a r l y a ll c o n c r e t e u s e d f o r b u ild in g s a n d s t r u c t u r e s is re in fo rc e d . T h e siz e o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b e a m s c a n b e r e d u c e d i f th e r e in f o r c e m e n t is s tr e tc h e d b e fo re t h e c o n c r e te is p o u r e d i n to p o s itio n a n d t h e p u l l m a i n t a i n e d u n til t h e c o n c r e t e is h a r d a n d s tr o n g . T h e s t r e t c h i n g f o r c e is t h e n r e m o v e d a n d , a s a r e s u lt, t h e b e a m is c o m p r e s s e d . T h is t y p e o f c o n c r e t e u s u a lly h a s r e i n f o r c e m e n t in t h e f o r m o f w ire s a n d is k n o w n a s p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e . S o m e t i m e s se p a ra te b lo c k s o f c o n c re te a re m a d e w ith h o le s th r o u g h th e m . C a b le s o f w ire a r e t h r e a d e d th r o u g h th e s e h o le s s o t h a t t h e c o n c r e t e b lo c k s a re lik e b e a d s o n a strin g . T h e c a b le s a r e fe tc h e d , w e d g e s a r e p l a c e d in t h e h o le s o f t h e e n d b lo c k , a n d t h e c a b le s a r e t h e n re le a s e d . T h e e ffe c t is t o c o m p r e s s t h e ro w o f b lo c k s s o t h a t t h e y f o r m a b e a m o r g ird e r. L ig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e te c a n b e m a d e b y i n c lu d in g p ro c e s s e d c lin k e r o r a i r in t h e m ix . C o n c r e t e c a n b e m a d e in d i f f e r e n t c o l o u r s o r p a i n t e d w i t h s p e c ia l p a i n t . D i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s c a n b e m a d e o n t h e s u rfa c e b y u s in g d iffe re n t ty p e s o f s h u tte n n g . S o m e tim e s t h e c e m e n t la y e r o n t h e s u r f a c e is r e m o v e d a f t e r t h e c o n c r e t e h a s s e t to e x p o s e t h e s to n e s . T h is is c a lle d e x p o s e d a g g re g a te . C o n c r e t e c a n b e u s e d f o r t h i n r o o fs c a lle d s h e lls o v e r la rg e s p a c e s s u c h a s g y m n a s iu m s o r a ir c r a f t h a n g a r s . T h e t h i n s la b is s t r e n g t h e n e d b y c u rv in g . UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 113 P r e - c a s t c o n c re te is c o n c re te a lre a d y m a d e in to b u ild in g s e c tio n s f o r la te r u s e in h o u s in g , b rid g e s , a n d o t h e r s tr u c tu r e s . T h e y a re ta k e n t o th e s ite , lifte d b y c r a n e s , a n d fix e d to g e th e r w ith c o n c r e te . 2 0 . Id en tify th e to p ic o f e a c h p a ra g ra p h o f T e x t 5 B . 2 1 . C o m p le t e th e s e n t e n c e s c h o o s in g t h e b e s t v a r ia n t c o rresp o n d in g to th e c o n te n ts o f T e x t 5 B . 1) C o n c r e te h a s th e g re a t a d v a n ta g e b e c a u s e a ) it is m a d e fr o m h y d ra u lic c e m e n t, c r u s h e d s to n e o r g rav el, a n d sand. b ) it is m a d e in a n y s h a p e . c ) it h a s to b e w o r k e d t o t h e r e q u ir e d s h a p e . 2 ) C o n c r e te is th e b u ild in g m a te r ia l t h a t a ) c a n b e m a d e o n t h e b u ild in g site. b ) c a n ’t b e d e liv e re d r e a d y - m ix e d t o t h e b u ild in g site . c ) c a n s u p p o r t w a lls , flo o rs , b e a m s , c o lu m n s , g ird e rs . 3 ) T h e s tr e n g th o f c o n c r e te is d e te r m in e d b y t h e q u a n tity o f a ) s a n d a n d g ra v e l. b ) w a te r. c ) c e m e n t. 4 ) T o m a k e c o n c r e te s tr o n g e r a) it s h o u ld b e p u t u n d e r lo a d s . b ) s te e l ro d s s h o u ld b e e m b e d d e d . c ) it s h o u ld b e p u t u n d e r c o m p r e s s io n o r te n s io n . 5 ) T h e re in fo rc e d c o n c r e te b e a m is c o m p r e s s e d b e c a u s e a ) it is s tr e tc h e d . b ) th e s tr e tc h in g fo rc e is re m o v e d . c ) h o le s a re m a d e th r o u g h it. 114I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 6) L ig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e te c a n b e m a d e b y u s in g a ) p r o c e s s e d c l in k e r o r air. b ) d iffe re n t ty p e s o f s h u tte n n g . c ) e x p o s in g th e s to n e s . 22. R e a d T e x t 5 C “ B r ic k s ” a n d fin d t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s tio n s . D is c u s s y o u r a n s w e rs w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s . a) W h y a r e b ric k s c o n s id e r e d t o b e t h e m o s t la s tin g o f m a n ­ m a d e b u ild in g m a te ria ls ? b ) W h a t w a y s a re b ric k s m a d e in ? c) W h a t is th e s o f t- m u d p ro c e s s c h a ra c te riz e d b y ? d) W h a t d o e s t h e stiff-c la y p ro c e s s c o n s is t in ? e) W h a t is sp e c ific o f th e p re s s e d b n c k p ro c e s s ? f) W h e n a re b a c k s re a d y f o r f in n g ? g) W h a t p ro c e s s p ro d u c e s t h e b a c k s o f lig h t s a n d y c o lo u r? h) W h a t a d v a n ta g e s d o lig h te r b ric k s h av e? i) W h a t fa c to rs d o e s t h e c o lo u r o f c la y b ric k s d e p e n d o n ? j) W h a t a re o v e rs iz e b ric k s c a lle d ? • TEXT 5C Bricks G o o d b ric k s a re t h e m o s t lastin g o f m a n - m a d e b u ild in g m aterials. T h e y a re n o t m u c h a ffe c te d b y t h e w e a th e r a n d , i f a b u ild in g c a tc h e s fire , b n c k w o r k re sists t h e e ffe c ts o f fire l o n g e r t h a n m o s t o t h e r fo rm s o f c o n s tru c tio n . B a c k s a re fairly s m a ll a n d lig h t a n d th e re fo re e a s y t o h a n d le , b u t w h e n t h e y a re b o n d e d t o g e t h e r w ith m o r t a r th e y m a k e e x tre m e ly s tro n g s tru c tu re s . G o o d b n c k w o r k n e e d s v e ry little m a in te n a n c e , la s ts fo r a lo n g t im e , a n d lo o k s a ttra c tiv e . B n c k is fo rm e d in th re e w ays, th e s o ft-m u d , stiff-clay , a n d p re sse d b r ic k p ro c e s s e s . I n t h e s o f t- m u d p ro c e s s , c la y is m ix e d w i t h w a te r to f o rm a s tif f p a s te w h ic h is t h e n t h r o w n b y h a n d o r f o r c e d b y m a c h in e in to w o o d e n o r m e ta l b o x -lik e m o u ld s o f th e siz e o f a b ric k . S a n d o r w a te r is s p rin k le d o n th e in s id e o f th e m o u ld s to UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS \2± k e e p th e c la y f r o m s tic k in g . T h e s a n d o r w a t e r a ls o g iv e s th e b r ic k a p le a s a n t f in is h . S u c h b r ic k s a r e c a lle d s a n d - s t r u c k o r w a te r s tr u c k b r ic k s . T h e s o f t, w e t b r ic k s a r e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e m o u ld s f o r d r y in g . I n t h e s tif f - c la y p r o c e s s , t h e g r o u n d c la y is m ix e d w ith w a te r in a lo n g t r o u g h c o n ta in in g a re v o lv in g s h a f t w ith b la d e s . T h e b la d e s m ix t h e c la y w ith w a te r a s th e y re v o lv e a n d a t t h e s a m e tim e p u s h it f o r w a r d in t o a n e x tr u s io n m a c h i n e . T h i s f o r c e s it t h r o u g h a r e c t a n g u l a r o p e n in g . I t is e x tr u d e d in a lo n g b a r o f t h e le n g th a n d w id th o f a b r ic k . A m o v in g b e lt c a r r ie s t h e c la y b a r t o a c u t t e r , w h ic h is a m e ta l fr a m e w ith a n u m b e r o f w ir e s s tr e tc h e d a c r o s s it. T h e w ir e s a r e b r o u g h t d o w n o n t h e b a r t o c u t it i n t o b r ic k s , w h ic h a r e t h e n d r ie d . B r ic k s f o r m e d in t h i s w a y a r e k n o w n a s e x tr u d e d w i r e - c u t b r ic k s . I n t h e p r e s s e d b n c k s y s te m , t h e c la y is s e m i- d r y , a n d is p r e s s e d b y a h e a v y m a c h in e in to m e ta l m o u ld s u n d e r s u c h h ig h p r e s s u r e th a t th e c la y p a r tic le s h o ld to g e th e r . B e c a u s e p r e s s e d b n c k h a s v e ry little w a te r , it n e e d s little d ry in g . A f te r b e in g fo rm e d , b n c k s are lo a d e d o n ra il tr u c k s a n d p u s h e d in to d r ie r s , a n d t h e n in to k iln s t o b e fire d . D r y in g ta k e s tw o t o th r e e d a y s a n d t h e n t h e b r ic k s a r e r e a d y f o r fin n g . C la y is t h e m a t e n a l m o s t o f te n a s s o c ia te d w i t h b r ic k s , b u t s in c e th e la te 1 9 th c e n tu r y o t h e r m a te ria ls h a v e b e e n u s e d . F o r e x a m p le , c a lc iu m s ilic a te b r ic k s , s o m e tim e s k n o w n a s san d lim e b r ic k s , a r e m ade by p re s s in g a m ix tu r e o f m o is t s a n d a n d lim e in to b r ic k s h a p e b y m a c h in e . T h e b r ic k s a r e t h e n s te a m e d u n d e r h ig h p r e s s u r e in a n a u to c la v e . T h is p ro c e s s p r o d u c e s b ric k s o f an The world's highest brick tower of St. Martin's Church in Lands hut, Germany, completed in 1500 Ja 116 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей a ttr a c tiv e lig h t s a n d y c o lo u r w h ic h c a n b e t e x tu r e d a n d p ig m e n te d in a v a r ie ty o f w a y s N o t all b r ic k s a r e c o m p le te ly s o lid S o m e h a v e fro g s in th e m . T h e y m a k e it e a s ie r to p r e s s a n d fire th e b ric k s a n d r e d u c e th e w e ig h t L ig h te r b ric k s a re e a s ie r t o h a n d le a n d c h e a p e r t o tr a n s p o r t. N o w a d a y s m a n y m a c h in e - m a d e b n c k s h a v e h o le s in th e m fo r sim ila r re a s o n s . T h e s e a re c a lle d p e r f o r a te d b ric k s . S p e c ia ls as t h e n a m e s u g g e sts, a re b r ic k s m a d e f o r a s p e c if ic p u r p o s e T h e y a r e u s u a lly s h a p e d t o fit a n g le s a n d c u rv e s o r t o p r o d u c e a d e c o r a tiv e e ffe c t. T h e c o lo u r o f c la y b n c k s d e p e n d s o n s e v e ra l fa c to r s . T h e ty p e o f c la y u s e d , c h e m ic a ls in th e c la y , th e s u p p ly o f o x y g e n w h ile th e b n c k s a r e b e in g f ire d , a n d th e t e m p e r a tu r e th e b r ic k s r e a c h d u n n g firin g . T h e c o lo u r s v a ry f r o m d a r k p u r p le t o lig h t y e llo w . F a c in g b ric k s to b e u s e d in th e o u t e r w a lls o f b u ild in g s c a n b e g iv e n a r o u g h o r te x tu r e d s u r f a c e , o r t h e y m a y b e g la z e d t o a d d t o t h e i r a ttra c tiv e n e ss. S a n d - l i m e b r ic k s a r e n a t u r a l l y w h i t e , o f f - w h i t e , o r p in k , d e p e n d in g o n t h e s a n d u s e d t o m a k e t h e m . B y a d d in g p ig m e n ts , a n y c o lo u r s f r o m p a le p a s te ls t o d a r k t o n e s c a n b e p ro d u c e d . B lo c k s a r e e s s e n tia lly o v e rs iz e b r ic k s — c o m m o n l y a b o u t th e s iz e o f six b ric k s . T h e y m a y b e m a d e o f c la y o r c o n c r e te . C la y b lo c k s a r e h o llo w ; c o n c r e te b lo c k s m a y b e s o lid o r h o llo w . T h e a d v a n ta g e o f b lo c k s o v e r b r ic k s is t h a t b u ild in g c a n b e e a r n e d o u t f a s te r w ith th e m . SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 23. L is te n t o t h e T e x t “ R o m a n C o n c r e te ” . Study the following commentary: T h e B a th s o f C a r a c a lla — т е р м ы р и м с к о г о и м п е р а т о р а К а р а к а л л а (1 8 6 —2 1 7 г г .) T h e P a n th e o n — П а н т е о н , в Р и м е п а м я т н и к д р е в н е р и м с к о й а р х и т е к т у р ы ( о к 125 г. н .э .) UNIT 5. BUILDING MATERIALS 117 a ) A n sw er th e q u e s tio n s th a t fo llo w . 1. W h a t c o m p o n e n t s w a s R o m a n c o n c r e te m a d e fro m ? 2 . W h y w a s c o n c r e t e r e g a r d e d a s a re v o lu tio n a r y m a te r ia l9 3. W h a t is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n R o m a n c o n c r e te a n d m o d e m stru c tu ra l c o n c re te ? 4 . W h y h a v e m a n y R o m a n s t r u c t u r e s s u r v iv e d t o t h e p r e s e n t day? 5 . W h a t te c h n i q u e d id t h e R o m a n s u s e in t h e i r s tr u c tu r e s ? 6. W h e n w a s th e s e c r e t o f R o m a n c o n c r e te lo s t? 7. W h o p i o n e e r e d t h e r e - u s e o f c o n c r e te ? 8 . W h a t a g g re g a te s a r e u s e d in m o d e m c o n c r e te ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 5 A o f th e T e x t. L o o k u p th e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a r y . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t th e u se an d p r o d u c tio n o f c o n c r e te . d) T e ll y o u r g r o u p m a te s ab o u t th e m o d ern u se o f c o n c r e te b a se d o n th e in fo r m a tio n to b e c o lle c te d . 24. a) L iste n t o th e T e x t “ F r o m th e H is to r y o f B r ic k m a k in g ” . A s y o u lis te n , fill in th e c h a r t to d e sc r ib e th e p e r io d s o f th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f b r ick m a k in g . Sun-dried bricks The invention of a brick kiln The spread of the ancient craft of bnckmaking The loss of brickmaking art The revival ot brickmaking art The replacement of timber framework for brick-built walls b) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g ro u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 5 B o f th e T e x t . L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u d o n o t k n ow in th e d ictio n a ry . c) R e te ll th e T e x t ab o u t b rick m a k in g . UNIT 6 BUILDING SCIENCE Ш 1. SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e t h e a c tiv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ S tr e n g th o f M a t e r ia ls ” and t r a n s la te th e g iv e n s e n t e n c e s . 1. str e n g th o f m a te r ia ls — с о п р о т и в л е н и е м а т е р и а л о в com p ressive stren gth [ k a m 'p r e s iv ] — п р о ч н о с т ь н а с ж а т и е fa tig u e s tr e n g th [ f a 't k g ] — у с т а л о с т н а я п р о ч н о с т ь im p act stren gth [ ' im p a e k t] — р а б о т а д е ф о р м а ц и и п р и у д а р ­ н о м и зл о м е, у д ар н ая вя зк о с ть s t a t ic s tr e n g th [ 's ta e tik ] — с т а т и ч е с к а я п р о ч н о с т ь , п р о ч ­ н о сть п р и стати ческ о й нагрузке y ie ld str e n g th [ji:ld ] — у с л о в н ы й п р е д е л т е к у ч е с т и T h is b o o k c o v e rs r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r a n e n g in e e n n g u n d e r g r a d u a te c o u r s e o n strength o f materials a n d s tr u c tu r e s . O n e o f th e e s s e n tia l p r o p e r tie s o f c o n c r e t e is its compressive strength. T h e p r o c e s s is a p p lie d t o h ig h p e r f o r m a n c e e q u i p m e n t w h e r e it is n o t p o s s ib le t o in c r e a s e thefatigue strength b y a d d in g m o r e m a te ria l. Impact strength o n r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te s tr u c tu r e s w a s e s tim a te d b y th is m e th o d . W e in v e s tig a te d t h e re s is ta n c e t o fr a c tu r e in r e la tio n t o the static strength a n d s tr u c tu r e o f tw o b e a m s . P r i o r t o the yield strength t h e m a te r ia l w ill d e f o r m e la s tic a lly a n d w ill r e t u r n t o its o r ig in a l s h a p e . 2. d a m a g e ['d aem icfe] n v — п о в р е ж д е н и е , р а з р у ш е н и е , д е ­ ф ек т; п овреж д ать, разр у ш ать, н ан о си т ь ущ ерб T h is w ill d o a lo t o f damage t o th e b e a m . F ir e s damage p a r ts o f b u ild in g s a n d w h o le b u ild in g s . 120 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 3 fail ['fell] v — повреждать, разрушать, выходить из строя failure ['feilp] п — разрушение, авария, сбой, неисп­ равность brittle failure [britl] — хрупкое разрушение compressive (compression) failure — разрушение при сжа­ тии ductile failure ['dAktail] — вязкое (пластическое) разру­ шение tensile failure — разрушение при растяжении The roofjoint failed because of the roof heating up. Frost action causes serious failures of concrete. One of the most important charactenstics of the structural strength of steels is the resistance to brittle failure. The complexities of compressive failure become apparent when a solid block of matenal is squeezed between parallel plates. Damage models can be used to predict ductile failure in metal forming processes. The standard way to measure tensile strength is to use a small bar with uniform width and to pull at each end until the bar fails. 4. prevent (from) [pri'vent] v — предотвращать, предохра­ нять Temporary end stops should be used to prevent concrete from flowing along the bottom of the shutters and segregating. 5. dimension [dai'menjn] n — размер, объем A room has three spatial dimensions, length, height and width. 6 strain [strein] n v — деформация, напряжение, натя­ жение The change of dimensions in a matenal due to a stress is called strain. UNIT 6. BUILDING SCIENCE 121 7 w ith sta n d [ w id 's ta e n d ] v — п р о т и в о с т о я т ь , в ы д е р ж и в а т ь R e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te c a n u s e fu lly withstand b e n d in g lo a d . 8. b e a r [ 'Ь е э ] ( b o r e , b o r n e ) v - п о д д е р ж и в а т ь , с л у ж и т ь опорой b e a r in g n — опора b e a r in g r e a c tio n s — о п о р н о е д а в л е н и е T he b n d g e m ust bear t h e w e ig h t o f t h e c a r s a n d tr u c k s . T h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s a n in v e s tig a tio n in to th e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f f ix in g bearings. A n e x p e n m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t o f bearing reactions p r e c a s t u n i t s d i r e c tly o n t o t h e i r b e a m t e c h n i q u e is d e s c r ib e d f o r th e in b r id g e s la b s . 9. e n a b le [ і'п е іЫ ] v — д а в а т ь ( с о з д а в а т ь ) в о з м о ж н о с т ь A ll f lo o r s m u s t b e c o n s t r u c t e d b e f o r e t h e r o o f is p u t o n a n d w a te r p r o o f e d to enable f in is h in g w o rk to b e g in . 10. im p le m e n t v — в ы п о л н я т ь , о с у щ е с т в л я т ь , р е а л и з о в ы ­ вать T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m i t t e e ’s s u g g e s tio n s will be implemented im m e d ia te ly . 11. b e su b je c te d to [ s a b 'd j e k t i d ] — п о д в е р г а т ь с я A b e a m is a s t r u c tu r a l e l e m e n t t h a t is subjected to fo r c e s a c tin g p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o it. 12. d e fle c tio n [ d i 'f l e k f n ] The deflection o f a n— прогиб, упругая д еф о р м ац и я b e a m d e p e n d s o n its le n g th , its c r o s s - s e c tio n a l s h a p e , t h e m a te r ia l, w h e r e t h e d e fle c tin g f o r c e is a p p lie d , a n d h o w th e b e a m is s u p p o r te d . 122 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 13. sh ea r str e ss ['/ і э ] — к а с а т е л ь н о е н а п р я ж е н и е ten sile str e ss — р а с т я г и в а ю щ е е н а п р я ж е н и е Shear stress is c a lc u la te d b a s e d o n th e p n n c i p l e o f c o n s e rv a tio n o f m o m e n tu m . T h e r e a re s o m e k in d s o f m a te n a ls w h ic h c a n n o t w ith s ta n d tensile stress. 14. ten sio n [ 't e n f n ] n— растяж ение, н атяж ение C o n c r e t e h a s a m u c h h i g h e r s t r e n g t h w h e n it is u n d e r c o m p re s s io n t h a n it h a s w h e n it is s u b je c te d t o tension. 15. a s s e s s [ a 's e s ] v — о ц е н и в а т ь a s se ssm e n t [ a 's e s m a n t] n— оц ен к а to assess th e d a m a g e to th e b u ild in g . T h is o rg a n iz a tio n the assessment a n d c o n tr o l o f c o n s tr u c tio n p ro d u c ts . T h e y trie d p ro v id e s 16. c a p a b le (o f) [ 'k e i p a b l ] adj — с п о с о б н ы й ca p a b ility [ ,к е і р э 'Ь і Ы і ] n — с п о с о б н о с т ь , в о з м о ж н о с т ь , м ощ ность, производительность А n e w s p o rts h a ll capable o f a c c o m m o d a tin g 6 ,0 0 0 p e o p le h a s re c e n tly b e e n c o m p le te d . T h e e n g in e e r e x p la in e d th e t e c h n i c a l capabilities o f th e b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e . 17. fulfil [fu l'fil] v — в ы п о л н я т ь , и с п о л н я т ь fu lfilm en t [ f u l'f ilm a n t] n— вы п олн ен и е T h is ty p e o f fin is h e s fulfils d iffe re n t f u n c tio n s . 18. in c r e a s e [ 'ip k r iis ] [ in 'k r i i s ] n v — возрастан и е, у вели че­ н и е; возрастать, увел и ч и вать d e c r e a se ['d i:k ri:s ] [ ,d i : 'k r i : s ] nv— ум еньш ение, сниж е­ н и е, п ад ен и е; у м ен ьш ат ь, сн и ж ат ь, п адать, уб ы вать An increase in th e v o lu m e o f b u ild in g c a n o n ly b e a c h ie v e d b y g r e a te r p ro d u c tiv ity . B y u s in g in d u s tr ia l m e th o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n UNIT б. BUILDING SCIENCE th e sp e e d o f c o n s tr u c tio n m a y to c o n s id e r a b ly decrease t h e be c o n s id e ra b ly increased. 123 It is p o ssib le b u ild in g c o s ts b y u s in g p r e f a b n c a tio n . 19. e x p a n d [ ik s 'p a e n d ] v — р а с ш и р я т ь , у в е л и ч и в а т ь с я в объем е e x p a n sio n [ i k 's p a e n jn ] n— T h o u s a n d s o f c o u n t r y to w n s р асш и рен и е, растяги ван и е expanded in to g r e a t in d u s tr ia l o r expansion t o d o u b le c o m m e r c ia l c e n tr e s . T h e s ite a llo w s f o r f u r th e r th e p r e s e n t siz e o f th e f a c to r y . 2 0 . d isp la c e [ d is 'p le is ] v — в ы д а в л и в а т ь , в ы т е с н я т ь d isp la c e m e n t n — п ер ем ещ ен и е, сдви г, см ещ ен и е T h e d e n s e r c o ld w a te r s in k s to displace th e h e a t e d w a te r , w h ic h is f o rc e d to n se . W e c a n d e s c rib e q u a n tita tiv e ly th e a m o u n t o f la te ra l displacement o f th e beam . 2 . R e a d a n d t r a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir tr a n sc r ip tio n s in t h e d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p a rt o f s p e e c h . n v, p h e n o m e n a n, o p tim iz e v, p r e v e n t v, adj, p e r m a n e n t adj, s e r v ic e n, e s th e tic s n, n, n e u tr a liz e v , e q u ilib r iu m л , g r a v ita tio n a l adj, t e r m n, s tr e s s n, e x p r e s s v, c o m p r e s s iv e adj, o p p o s e v, lim it n, n, th e r m a l adj. C o l l e c t i o n л , fo c u s s p e c if ic , h y p e r s ta tic r e a c tio n tr e n d л , m anner 3 . M a t c h th e w o rd s w ith th e d e fin itio n s b e lo w . a ) te n s ile fa ilu r e b) te n s ile s tr e s s c ) c o m p r e s s iv e s tr e n g th d) c o m p r e s s iv e fa ilu r e e) g) te n s io n s h e a r s tr e s s 0 fa tig u e s t r e n g th y ie ld s tr e n g th j) i) h) im p a c t s tr e n g th b n t t l e f a ilu r e 124 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 1 the condition of being stretched 2. the ability of a material to resist shock loading 3 the resistance of a material to a force tending to tear it apart 4 the ability of a metal to tolerate gradual progressive force without permanent deformation 5 collapse caused by compression 6 the form of stress in a material that tends to produce cutting rather than stretching or bending 7. the strength of a substance under tension 8. a complete fracture of the specimen in a direction perpendicular to the direction of loading 9. the maximum stress a matenal can endure for a given number of cycles without failure 10. the ability of a material to resist forces attempting to crush it 4. Match the following English words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents. 1. fulfil 2. assess 3. dimension 4. deflection 5. displacement 6. implement 7. prevent 8 strength of materials 9. decrease 10. ductile failure 11. failure 12. capability 13 enable 14. withstand 15. bear a. прогиб, упругая деформация b. давать возможность c. выполнять, осуществлять d. разрушение, неисправность e. уменьшать, снижать f. оценивать g. вязкое разрушение h. противостоять, выдерживать i. способность, производительность j. поддерживать, служить опорой k. выполнять, исполнять l. сопротивление материалов т . сдвиг, смещение п. предотвращать, предохранять о размер, объем иш6. BUILDING SCIENCE 125 5 . F ill th e g a p s w ith th e su ita b le w o rd s b elo w . 1. a ) c o m p re ss d) b ) c o m p r e s s ib le c ) c o m p r e s s iv e c o m p r e s s ib ility e ) c o m p r e s s io n f) c o m p r e s s o r I. T h e r e a r e m a n y p r o b le m s in w h ic h a b e a m is s u p p o r te d o n a f o u n d a tio n e x e rtin g a d is trib u tiv e r e a c tio n o n t h e b e a m o f in te n s ity p ro p o rtio n a l to th e 2. I n o r d e r t o s e le c t th e a p p r o p n a t e siz e o f a f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n u se , it is n e c e s s a r y t o k n o w w h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n d e v ic e s a r e t o b e p o w e r e d b y t h e c o m p r e s s e d a ir. 3 b u ild in g m a te ria ls a re u se d t o r e d u c e t h e p re s s u re s t r a n s m itte d t o f o u n d a tio n s a n d sla b s. 4 . W o o d is s tr o n g w h e n w e it v e rtic a lly . 5. B e n d in g o c c u r s w h e n a s tr a ig h t m a te r ia l b e c o m e s c u r v e d ; o n e sid e s q u e e z e s t o g e th e r in c o m p r e s s io n , a n d t h e o t h e r s id e s tr e tc h e s a p a r t in te n s io n . 6. A m a te r ia l w h ic h c a n r e sist h ig h f o r c e s h a s t h e p r o p e r ty o f h ig h s tr e n g th . II. a) expand b ) expanse c ) e x p a n s io n d) e ) e x p a n s ib ility d ) e x p a n s iv e e x p a n s ib le 1. A r e s in c o m p o s itio n c o n ta in in g le ss t h a n 5 p e r c e n t b y w e ig h t o f w h o lly in o r g a n ic c la y p a r tic le s is w e ll d is p e r s e d . 2. C o n s tr u c tio n o f th e p o r t is o n a v a s t o f 6 0 0 a c r e s w ith a u n iq u e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t c a r g o h a n d lin g f a c ilitie s . 3. T h e a p p lic a tio n o f c o n c r e t e is t h e e f f e c tiv e w a y to so lv e t h e d e f e c t p r o b le m s o f p ile s . 4 . T h e y s tu d ie d t h e e f f e c ts o f v a r io u s f a c to r s o n t h e o f c o n c r e t e f o r la r g e d a m s . 5. T h is m a te r ia l c a n w h e n th e te m p e r a tu r e n s e s o r w h e n th e m o is tu r e c o n t e n t in c r e a s e s . 6. T h is s y s te m is p r o v id e d t o a llo w f o r o f th e w a te r. 6 . R e a d an d tr a n sla te t h e fo llo w in g g r o u p s o f s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e w ord s in it a lic s w h ic h c a n fu n c tio n a s a n o u n an d a verb o r a n a d je c tiv e , o r a n o u n an d a n ad je c tiv e o r a p articip le, w ith th e sa m e form . L o o k up yo u r diction ary if n e c e ssa r y . 126 I 1. Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей a. A lim itin g strain b. A strain d e f in e s t h e fa ilu r e o f r e in f o r c e m e n t. lim it o f 1% s h o u ld b e a p p lie d . c . I f th e s tre ss is s m a ll, t h e m a t e n a l m a y 2. b. N o increase in little . increase. t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c h a r g e s w ill b e m a d e . c. R e s id e n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n is o n th e 3. strain a a. T h e s tr e n g th p r o p e r tie s o f th is ty p e o f s te e l m a y a S to r m c a u s e d a lo t o f damage to increase. th e house. damage p r e v e n tio n m e a s u re s s h o u ld b e ta k e n . damage u n r e in f o r c e d m a s o n r y b u ild in g s. a. A lo a d bearing w all c a m e s th e p a rts o f th e h o u s e u p o n it. b . T h e c o lu m n s bearing the. lo a d m u s t b e p r o p e r ly lo c a te d . c. A s te e l b e a m bearing was in s ta lle d o n c o n c r e te m a s o n ry . a. T h e m a te n a l w a s subjected to th e a p p lie d lo a d . b. T h e y subjected t h e b e a m to v a n o u s te sts. c. T h e y te s te d th e s tr u c tu r e s subjected t o w in d fo rc e s. b. T h e flo o d c. E a rth q u a k e s c a n 4. 5. 7. S tu d y the follow in g p a ttern s sh ow in g th e w a y s so m e ad jecti a re form ed from n o u n s o r v e r b s. C o m p le te th e c h a r ts . S o m e o f t h e m issin g w o rd s are from t h e t e x t s o f th e U n it. R e a d and t r a n s la t e th e m . U s e y o u r d ic t io n a r y t o h e lp y o u w ith t h e p r o n u n c ia tio n . J Pattern 19 N o u n + - a l - » A d je c tiv e T h e - a l s u ffix m e a n s Example, | o f or concerning. a d d itio n — д о п о л н е н и е - » a d d itio n a l — д о п о л н и ­ тельны й Noun Adjective p h y sic s ______________________ p ra c tic e ______________________ UNIT б. BUILDING SCIENCE 127 m e c h a n ic s m a th e m a tic s g ra v ita tio n axis s tru c tu re Pattern 20 I N o u n /V e r b + -o u s -> A d je c tiv e | T h e - o u s su ffix m e a n s causing or having. Example, f a m e — и з в е с т н о с т ь - > fa m o u s — и з в е с т н ы й Noun/Verb Adjective a d v a n ta g e ______________________ s im u lta n e ity ______________________ c o n tin u e ______________________ v ary ______________________ Pattern 21 I N o u n /V e r b + -a r y - > A d je c tiv e T h e - a i y su ffix m e a n s | o f or concerning. Example, i n f l a t i o n — и н ф л я ц и я - > i n f l a t i o n a l — и н ф л я ц и ­ онны й Noun/Verb Adjective s u p p le m e n t ______________________ c u s to m ---------------------------------- v o lu n te e r ---------------------------------- 128 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей im a g in e benefit Pattern 22 N o u n / V e i b + - а Ы е /іЫ е A d je c tiv e having a stated quality can be done. T h e - a b l e / i b l e su ffix e s m e a n or condition Example or a c c e p t — п р и н и м а т ь -> a c c e p ta b le — п р и е м л е м ы й Noun/Verb Adjective c o m p re s s _____________________ re c o v e r _____________________ accept _____________________ su it _____________________ flex _____________________ v alu e _____________________ SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8. R e a d a n d t r a n s l a t e th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio to th e fo r m s a n d f u n c tio n s o f t h e P r e s e n t P a r tic ip le . a) A ttr ib u te Example T h e playing b o y is m y s o n . — Играющий м а л ь ч и к — м о й с ы н . T h e b o y playing in t h e g a r d e n is m y s o n . — М а л ь ч и к , играю­ щий в с а д у , — м о й с ы н . UNIT 6. BUILDING SCIENCE 129 T h e b rid g e being built a c r o s s th e riv e r w ill b e v e r y big . — М о с т , строящийся (который строится) ч е р е з р е к у , б у д е т о ч е н ь б о л ь ­ ш им. 1. B u ild in g s c ie n c e is th e c o lle c tio n o f s c ie n tif ic k n o w le d g e th a t fo c u s e s o n t h e a n a ly s is a n d c o n tr o l o f th e p h y s ic a l p h e n o m e n a a f f e c tin g b u ild in g s . 2 T h is j o b b e in g m a n a g e d b y th e p r o je c t m a n a g e r a n d s u p e r v is e d e n g in e e r w ill b e d o n e o n tim e . 3. T h e s tr e n g th o f m a te r ia ls g iv e s th e v a lu e o f th e b e a r in g r e a c tio n s o f th e h y p e rsta tic stru c tu re s. 4. H y d r a tio n involves m a n y d iffe re n t re a c tio n s o f te n o c c u r r in g a t t h e s a m e tim e . 5. Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s d e s c r ib e s t h e te n d e n c y o f a n o b je c t to d e f o r m a lo n g a n ax is w h e n o p p o s in g f o r c e s a re a p p lie d a lo n g t h a t ax is. 6 T h e d e s ig n b e in g p r e p a r e d b y th e h ig h ly s k ille d e x p e r ts ’ t e a m w ill b e c o m p le te d n e x t m o n th . b) A d verb ial m o d ifier Example (W h ile ) reading h e w a s m a k in g s o m e n o te s . — Читая, о н д е ­ л ал зам етки . Having lost t h e k e y h e c o u l d n ’t g e t in t o t h e h o u s e . — Потеряв клю ч, он не м ог п опасть в дом Being built o f w o o d t h e b r id g e c o u l d n ’t c a r r y h e a v y lo a d s . — Т а к к а к м о с т б ш построен (будучи построенным) и з д е р е в а , о н н е м о г вы д ер ж ать тя ж ел ы х н агр у зо к. Having been translated in to m a n y la n g u a g e s T o ls to y ’s b o o k s После того как к н и г и Т о л ­ с т о г о были переведены н а м н о г и е я з ы к и , о н и с т а л и и з в е с т н ы b e c a m e k n o w n a ll o v e r th e w o rld . — во всем м и ре. 1. I n g e n e r a l s to n e s a r e u s e d a s b a s ic s tr u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s in b u ild in g s , w h ile m u d is u s e d t o fill in th e s p a c e b e tw e e n , a c tin g a s a ty p e o f c o n c r e t e a n d in s u la tio n . 2 . T o p e r f o r m s u c c e s s f u lly in t h e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s tr y s t u d e n ts m u s t d e v e lo p t h e i r s k ills in t h e t e c h n ic a l a s p e c ts o f c o n s tr u c tio n w h ile a p p ly in g u se fu l c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e m e n t p r a c tic e s a n d to o ls to m a in ta in c o n t r o l a n d p ro v id e 5 Зак 312 130I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей o p tim a l d e c is io n s . 3 . H a v in g l o o k e d th r o u g h a ll th e d o c u m e n ts a n d le tte rs h e c a lle d h is s e c re ta ry . 4 . H a v in g b e e n in t h e b u ild in g a n d c o n s tr u c t io n b u s in e s s f r o m th e v e ry b e g in n in g w e h a v e m u c h p re v io u s e x p e n e n c e fro m th e b u ild in g p o in t o f view . 5. C o n s tru c tio n m a n a g e rs c o o r d in a te a n d su p e rv is e th e c o n s tr u c t i o n p ro c e s s fro m th e c o n c e p tu a l d e v e lo p m e n t stag e th ro u g h fin al c o n s tru c tio n , m a k in g s u re th a t th e p r o je c t g e ts c o m p le te d o n t im e a n d w ith in b u d g e t. 6 . H a v in g b e e n r e p a ir e d th e d e v ic e b e g a n w o rk in g m u c h b e tte r . 7. H a v in g e x a m in e d th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n stre s s a n d s tra in w e d e te r m in e d t h e e la s tic m o d u lu s . 8. W h e n p u r c h a s in g a n e w h o u s e th e b u y e r h a s less le g a l p r o te c t io n t h a n w h e n b u y in g a n e w c a r. 9. R ead and tra n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s pa y in g a tte n tio n to th e form s and fu n ctio n s o f th e P a s t P a r tic ip le . a) A ttrib u te Example received b y t h e i r lib ra ry . — О н полученные и х б и б л и о т е к о й . H e s h o w e d u s s o m e m a g a z in e s п о к азал н ам ж ур н ал ы , T h e te le g ra m sent w as s ig n e d b y t h e d ire c to r. — О т п р а в л е н н а я телеграм м а б ы л а п од п и сан а директором . broken c h a ir s in th e ro o m . — В к о м н а т е н е ­ сломанных сту л ь ев . T h e r e a re a fe w сколько 1. T h e s tra in in creases u n til th e s tresses a re su ffic ie n t to n e u tra liz e th e fo rc e a p p lie d , w h e n t h e b o d y is a g a in in a c o n d it i o n o f e q u ilib r iu m . 2 . S tr e n g th o f m a te r ia ls s tu d ie s t h e m e c h a n ic a l p ro p e r tie s o f m a te n a l s u s e d in t h e c o n s tr u c t i o n in d u s try . 3. W e a re g o in g to s tu d y th e s tre ss s ta te c a u s e d b y s q u e e z in g th e m a te ria l. 4 T h e s tre n g th o f s tr u c tu r e s o f e q u a l c ro s s s e c tio n a l a r e a lo a d e d in te n s io n is in d e p e n d e n t o f c ro s s s e c tio n g e o m e tr y . 5. T h e e la s tic m o d u lu s is t h e s tre s s r e q u ir e d t o c a u s e a s a m p le o f th e m a t e n a l to d o u b le in le n g th . 6. I n c re a s e d s tr e n g th a n d d u r a b ility a re a ls o a p a r t o f th e d riv e t o re d u c e th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l f o o tp n n t o f th e b u ilt e n v ir o n m e n t b y t h e e ffic ie n t u s e o f re s o u rc e s . UNIT б. BUILDING SCIENCE b) 131 A d verb ial m o d ifie r Example W h e n questioned, I d i d n ’t k n o w w h a t t o a n s w e r. — Когда меня стали расспрашивать, я н е з н а л , ч т о о т в е т и т ь . 1. T h e m o d u lu s o f rig id ity d e s c n b e s th e te n d e n c y o f a n o b je c t to s h e a r w h e n a c te d u p o n b y t h e fo rc e s. 2. O n c e c e rtifie d , th e e n g in e e r is d e s ig n a te d th e t itle o f t h e p r o f e s s io n a l e n g in e e r . 3. D e s ig n c o n s i d e r a tio n s w ill in c lu d e s tr e n g th , s tiffn e s s , a n d s ta b ility o f t h e s tr u c tu r e w h e n s u b je c te d to lo a d s w h ic h m a y b e s ta tic , o r d y n a m ic . 4 W h e n fa c e d w ith u n e x p e c te d e v e n ts o r d e la y s , c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e r s s h o u ld b e d e c is iv e a n d w o r k w ell u n d e r p re s s u re . 10. M in d th e u s e o f th e P r e s e n t and P a s t P a r tic ip le s in th e p a ir s o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s . R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e m in to R u s s ia n . Example The book written b y th is e n g in e e r describes n e w tr e n d s in написанная э т и м и н ж е н е р о м , описы­ c o n s tr u c tio n . — К н и г а , вает н о в ы е н а п р а в л е н и я в с т р о и т е л ь с т в е . T h e b o o k describing n e w tr e n d s in c o n s tr u c tio n is written b y th is e n g in e e r . — К н и г а , описывающая н о в ы е н а п р а в л е н и я в с т р о ­ и т е л ь с т в е , написана э т и м и н ж е н е р о м . 1. S o m e ty p e s o f p la s tic s p r o d u c e d a t th is p la n t p r o v id e s o m e d e c o ra tiv e e ffe c ts . S o m e ty p e s o f p la s tic s p r o v id in g s o m e d e c o ra tiv e e ffe c ts a r e p r o d u c e d a t th is p la n t. 2 M a n y p la n ts p r o d u c in g p r e c a s t r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e a r e i n o p e r a t i o n in th is c o u n t r y n o w . M a n y p l a n t s b e in g in o p e r a t i o n in th is c o u n t r y n o w p r o d u c e p r e c a s t r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te . 3. M ic r o c o m p u te r s in v e n te d in th e 1970s h e lp m u c h in re s e a r c h w o rk . M ic r o c o m p u te r s h e lp in g m u c h in r e s e a r c h w o r k w e r e in v e n te d in t h e 1 9 7 0 s. 4 . T h e r e p o r t o n n e w b u ild in g m e th o d s m a d e b y B o b is b e in g d i s c u s s e d n o w . T h e r e p o r t o n n e w b u ild in g m e th o d s b e in g d is c u s s e d n o w w a s m a d e b y B o b . 132 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 5. M a te ria ls b e h a v in g in th is m a n n e r a re c a lle d e la s tic . M a te r ia ls c a lle d e la s tic b e h a v e in th is m a n n e r . 1 1 . T r a n sla te w h at is g iv e n in b r a c k e ts u sin g th e P r e s e n t and P a s t P a r tic ip le s. 1. T h e s h e e r siz e a n d s c o p e o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s try m e a n s t h a t th e ( с о п р о в о ж д а ю щ и й с я ) e c o n o m ic i m p a c t w ill b e h u g e . 2. W h ile ( в ы п о л н я я ) c o m p le x c a lc u la tio n s w e c a n a p p ly c o m p u te r s . 3. ( П о с л е т о г о , к а к м н е с к а з а л и ) th e title o f m y re p o rt o n stre n g th o f m a te ria ls I d e c id e d t o g o to t h e lib ra ry t o w o r k a t it. 4 . P e o p le (р а б о т а ю щ и е ) i n t h e i r o w n b u s in e s s s h o u ld c a lc u la te th e c o s t o f t h e i r o w n tim e ( п о т р а ч е н н о е ) in r u n n in g t h e b u s in e s s . 5. T e n s ile s tre ss is th e stre s s s ta te ( в ы з в а н н ы й ) b y a n ( п р и л о ж е н н ы й ) lo a d t h a t te n d s to e lo n g a te th e m a te r ia l in th e a x is o f t h e ( п р и л о ж е н ­ н ы й ) lo a d . 6. ( В ы п о л н и в ) th e te r m s o f th e c o n t r a c t t h e y re fu s e d to d o s o m e o t h e r jo b s a t t h e c o n s tr u c tio n s ite . 7. T h e n e w h o u s in g p r o je c t ( с т р о я щ и й с я ) in th is to w n w ill b e in t h e fo r m o f a h u g e c ir c le . 8. ( О ц е н и в а я ) d e la y s in c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , th e y c a n im p ro v e t h e w a y th e c o n s tr u c tio n t e a m m e m b e rs in te ra c t. 9. ( В ы б ­ р а в ) th e g e n e ra l c o n tr a c to r , th e c o m p a n y m u s t ta k e s te p s to sa tisfy t h e i r n e e d s . 10 T h e b u ild in g c o s ts la rg e ly d e p e n d e d o n th e ( и с ­ п о л ь з о в а н н ы й ) m a te n a ls . 1 2 . R ea d a n d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e A b so lu te P a r tic ip le C o n str u c tio n . Example The weather being fine, w e s ta r te d fo r a w a lk . — Так как погода была хорошая, т о м ы о т п р а в и л и с ь н а п р о г у л к у . Му sister having come back, I w e n t to se e h e r . — После того как моя сестра вернулась, я п о ш е л н а в е с т и т ь е е . 1. A ll th in g s b e in g e q u a l, c o n c r e t e w ith a lo w e r w a t e r - c e m e n t r a tio n m a k e s a s tr o n g e r c o n c r e t e t h a n t h a t w ith a h i g h e r r a tio . 2. UNIT б. BUILDING SCIENCE 133 R e s id e n tia l a s w e ll a s a ll o t h e r ty p e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n g e n e r a tin g a lo t o f w a ste , c a r e f u l p la n n in g is n e e d e d in th is a r e a 3. T h e y fin is h e d t h e e x p e r im e n t, th e r e s u lt b e in g q u ite s a tis f a c to r y 4 . T h e w o r k h a v in g b e e n f i n is h e d , t h e w o r k e r s le f t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite . 5. M o s t in d u s tr ie s m a k e u s e o f a v a rie ty o f m a c h in e s , e a c h m a c h in e c a r r y in g o u t a d if f e r e n t o p e r a tio n . 6 S o m e c e m e n t p la n ts a r e v e ry la rg e , th e i r a n n u a l p r o d u c tio n e x c e e d in g 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 7. tons o f c e m e n t. T h e n e w m e th o d s h a v in g b e e n in tr o d u c e d , t h e la b o u r p ro d u c tiv ity w e n t u p . 8. T h e s t u d e n t k n o w in g E n g lis h w e ll, t h e e x a m in a tio n d id n o t la st lo n g . 9. A n e x te r n a l fo rc e b e in g a p p lie d , a d e f o r m a tio n ta k e s p la c e . 10. T h e n e w m e t h o d h a v in g b e e n s tu d ie d in d e ta il, th e p la n t m a n a g e m e n t d e c id e d to i n tr o d u c e it a t th e p la n t. SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. W h a t d o y o u k n o w ab ou t s tr e n g th o f m a te r ia ls? R e a d th e s ta te m e n ts g iv e n b e lo w and s a y if th e y a r e tr u e or fa ls e . I f th e s ta te m e n ts a r e n o t tr u e , m ak e th e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c tio n s . a) T h e s t r e n g th o f m a te n a ls is o n e o f th e fie ld s o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e . b ) T h e s t r e n g th o f m a te r ia ls o n ly s tu d ie s b e a r in g r e a c tio n s o f s tr u c t u r a l s y s te m s . c ) T h e s t r e n g th o f m a te r ia ls d o e s n o t c o v e r d im e n s io n s a n d c h o ic e o f m a te r ia ls . d ) A d e f o r m a tio n ta k e s p la c e w h e n th e m a te r ia l is in a s ta te o f s tre s s . e ) S tr a in e x p re s s e s th e d e f o r m a tio n c h a n g e . f) C o m p r e s s iv e s tr e s s e lo n g a te s th e m a te r ia l in th e a x is o f th e a p p lie d lo a d . g) T e n s ile stre ss re d u c e s th e le n g th o f t h e m a te r ia l in th e a x is o f t h e a p p lie d lo a d . 134I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей h) S h e a r s tre ss c a u s e s o p p o s in g fo rc e s t o a c t a lo n g p a ra lle l lin e s o f a c tio n . 1) Y ie ld s tre n g th , c o m p re s s iv e s tre n g th , te n s ile s tre n g th , fa tig u e s tre n g th , a n d im p a c t s tre n g th a re n o t th e te rm s in th e s tre n g th o f m a te ria ls . 14. R ea d T e x t 6 A “ S tr e n g th o f M a te r ia ls ” an d s a y if y o u a r e rig h t o r w ro n g . D is c u s s y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g ro u p m a tes o r tea ch er. • TEXT 6A Strength o f M aterials B u ild in g s c ie n c e is th e c o lle c tio n o f s c ie n tific k n o w le d g e t h a t fo c u s e s o n th e a n a ly s is a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e p h y s ic a l p h e n o m e n a a ffe c tin g b u ild in g s . T h is in c lu d e s th e d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f b u ild in g m a te ria ls a n d b u ild in g e n v e lo p e s y s te m s . T h e p r a c tic a l p u r p o s e o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e is to p ro v id e p re d ic tiv e c a p a b ility t o o p tim iz e b u ild in g p e r f o r m a n c e a n d u n d e r s ta n d o r p re v e n t b u ild in g fa ilu re s . O n e o f th e field s o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e is th e s tre n g th o f m a te ria ls . Its p u rp o s e is to d e te r m in e t h e d im e n s io n s o f t h e c o n s tr u c tio n s in o r d e r t o re s is t t o s tra in s w h ic h t h e y h a v e t o w ith s ta n d , o r t o c h e c k i f a s p e c ific c o n s tr u c tio n is a b le t o w ith s ta n d c e r t a i n s tra in s . T h e s tre n g th o f m a te ria ls a ls o g iv es t h e v a lu e o f t h e b e a n n g re a c tio n s o f th e h y p e rs ta tic s tru c tu re s. It e n a b le s to e n s u re th e g o o d p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e b e a m s u n d e r th e p e rm a n e n t a n d HP A material loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear. s e rv ic e lo a d s . F u r t h e r m o r e , th is s c ie n c e s tu d ie s th e m e c h a n ic a l p ro p e rtie s o f m a te ria ls u s e d in th e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s try . T h e s tre n g th o f m a te ria ls is a lso th e s tu d y o f d i m e n s i o n s a n d c h o i c e o f m a te r ia ls t o i m p l e m e n t in a c o n s tr u c tio n . T o d e s ig n a m e c h a n ic a l p a r t , a s t r u c tu r e , it is in itia lly t o im a g i n e t h e f o r m s a n d g e o m e t r i c a l s k e le to n w h ic h fu lfil th e sp e c ific fu n c tio n s ; UNIT б. BUILDING SCIENCE 135 t h e n , it is t o d e te r m in e th e q u a n titie s o f m a t t e r n e c e s s a r y a n d s u ffic ie n t to a c h ie v e th e s e fo r m s a n d to e n s u r e a r e s is ta n c e w ith o u t d a m a g e to th e o b je c t w ith all th e s tra in s it w ill b e su b je c te d to d u rin g its se rv ic e . T h is d im e n s io n in g c a lls u p o n c a lc u la tio n s t h a t f o r e c a s t th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e o b je c t w h o se d e s ig n m u s t c o m b in e th e b e s t c o n d i t i o n s o f s e c u r ity , e c o n o m y , a n d e s th e tic s . I n g e n e r a l, w h e n a n e x te r n a l f o r c e is a p p lie d t o a b o d y , a d e f o r m a tio n ta k e s p la c e ; th is is c a lle d th e s tr a in . T h is d e f o r m a tio n c a u s e s f o r c e s t o b e s e t u p in t h e in te r n a l s tr u c tu r e o f th e m a te r ia l, a n d t h e m a te r ia l is t h e n s a id t o b e in a s ta te o f s tr e s s . T h e s tr a in i n c r e a s e s u n til th e r e s u ltin g stre s s e s a r e s u f f ic ie n t t o n e u tr a liz e th e a p p lie d fo r c e w h e n t h e b o d y is a g a in i n a c o n d i t i o n o f e q u ilib r iu m . D e f o r m a tio n o f t h e m a te ria l is th e c h a n g e in g e o m e tr y w h e n stre s s is a p p lie d i n t h e f o r m o f f o r c e l o a d in g , g r a v ita tio n a l f ie ld , t h e r m a l e x p a n s io n , e tc . D e f o r m a tio n is e x p re s s e d b y t h e d is p la c e m e n t fie ld o f th e m a te r ia l. S tr a in o r r e d u c e d d e f o r m a t i o n is a m a th e m a t i c a l te r m t o e x p r e s s t h e t r e n d o f th e d e f o r m a tio n c h a n g e a m o n g th e m a te r ia l field . F o r u n ia x ia l lo a d in g — d is p la c e m e n ts o f a s p e c im e n ( f o r e x a m p le , a b a r e l e m e n t ) it is e x p r e s s e d a s th e q u o t i e n t o f th e d is p la c e m e n t a n d th e le n g th o f t h e s p e c im e n . D e f le c tio n is a t e r m to d e sc rib e th e m a g n itu d e to w h ic h a s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n t b e n d s u n d e r a lo a d . T h e r e a re th r e e k in d s o f stresses: c o m p r e s s iv e , te n s ile a n d s h e a r. C o m p r e s s iv e stre ss is t h e stre ss s ta te c a u s e d b y a n a p p lie d lo a d t h a t a c ts t o r e d u c e th e l e n g th o f th e m a te r ia l in t h e ax is o f t h e a p p lie d lo a d , in o t h e r w o r d s th e stre s s s ta te c a u s e d b y s q u e e z in g th e m a te r ia l. C o m p r e s s iv e s t r e n g th f o r m a t e n a l s is g e n e r a lly h ig h e r th a n th a t o f te n s ile stre ss. T e n s ile stre s s is th e stre s s s ta te c a u s e d b y a n a p p lie d lo a d th a t t e n d s t o e lo n g a te th e m a te r ia l in t h e a x is o f th e a p p lie d lo a d , in o t h e r w o r d s th e s tr e s s c a u s e d b y p u llin g th e m a t e n a l . T h e s tr e n g th o f s tr u c tu r e s o f e q u a l c r o s s s e c tio n a l a r e a lo a d e d in te n s io n is i n d e p e n d e n t o f c r o s s s e c t i o n g e o m e tr y . S h e a r stre ss is t h e stre ss s ta te c a u s e d b y o p p o s in g f o r c e a c tin g a lo n g p a ra lle l lin e s o f a c tio n t h r o u g h t h e m a te r ia l. Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 136 I T h e r e a re s o m e s tr e n g th te r m s in th e s tr e n g th o f m a te ria ls . Y ie ld s tr e n g th is t h e lo w e s t stre s s t h a t g iv e s p e r m a n e n t d e f o r m a tio n in a m a te n a l. C o m p re s s iv e s tr e n g th is a lim it s ta te o f c o m p re s s iv e stre ss t h a t le a d s t o c o m p r e s s iv e fa ilu re in th e m a n n e r o f d u c tile fa ilu re o r in th e m a n n e r o f b r ittle fa ilu r e . T e n s ile s t r e n g th is a lim it s ta te o f te n s ile s tr e s s t h a t le a d s t o te n s ile f a ilu r e in t h e m a n n e r o f d u c tile fa ilu r e ( y ie ld a s t h e fir s t sta g e o f f a ilu r e , s o m e h a r d e n in g in t h e s e c o n d sta g e a n d b r e a k a f te r a p o s s ib le n e c k f o r m a tio n ) o r in th e m a n n e r o f b r ittle f a ilu r e ( s u d d e n b r e a k in g in s o m e p ie c e s w ith a lo w s tr e s s s t a te ) . F a tig u e s tr e n g th is a m e a s u r e o f t h e s t r e n g th o f a m a t e n a l o r a c o m p o n e n t u n d e r c y c lic lo a d in g , a n d is u s u a lly m o r e d iffic u lt t o a sse ss th a n t h e sta tic s tr e n g th m e a s u re s . I m p a c t s tr e n g th is th e c a p a b ility o f t h e m a te r ia l i n w ith s ta n d in g b y th e s u d d e n ly a p p lie d lo a d s. 15 . F in d in T e x t 6 A t h e p a ra g ra p h sa y in g a b o u t s o m e s tr e n g th te r m s u sed in t h e str e n g th o f m a te r ia ls and tr a n s la te it in to 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p aragrap h 2 o f T e x t 6A . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s . a) Its p u rp o s e is t o d e te r m in e t h e d im e n s io n s o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n s in o r d e r t o r e s is t t o s tr a in s w h ic h th e y h a v e t o w ith s ta n d W h a t do es th e p ro n o u n its r e f e r to ? b ) //e n a b l e s t o e n s u r e th e g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e b e a m s u n d e r t h e p e r m a n e n t a n d se rv ic e lo a d s. W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n c) it r e f e r t o ? this s c ie n c e s tu d ie s th e m e c h a n ic a l p r o p e r tie s o f m a te r ia ls u s e d in t h e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s try . W h a t d o e s t h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e a d je c tiv e this r e f e r t o 9 UNIT 6 . BUILDING SCIENCE d) it is t o d e te r m in e t h e q u a n titie s o f m a t t e r n e c e s s a r y a n d s u f f ic ie n t t o a c h ie v e these fo r m s W h a t d o e s th e d e m o n s tr a tiv e a d je c tiv e e) 137 these re f e r to ? this is c a lle d t h e s tr a in . this r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n f) it is e x p r e s s e d a s t h e q u o t i e n t o f th e d is p l a c e m e n t a n d th e le n g th o f th e s p e c im e n . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n it r e f e r to ? g ) C o m p r e s s iv e s t r e n g t h f o r m a t e n a l s is g e n e r a lly h i g h e r t h a n that o f te n s ile stre ss. W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n that r e f e r to ? 1 8 . Fin d in T e x t 6 A s o m e k e y w o rd s an d e x p r e s s io n s t o sp e a k ab o u t th e str e n g th o f m a te r ia ls . R e te ll t h e T e x t in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 6 B “ S t r e s s - S t r a i n R e la t io n s ” a n d tr y to u n d erstan d w h at it is a b ou t an d w h at in fo rm a tio n is k n ow n t o y o u . • TEXT 6B S tre ss-stra in R elatio ns E la s tic ity is th e a b ility o f a m a te r ia l t o r e t u r n to its p r e v io u s s h a p e a f te r stre s s is re le a s e d . I n m a n y m a te r ia ls , th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n a p p lie d stress a n d t h e r e su ltin g str a in is d ire c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to a c e r t a i n lim it, a n d a g r a p h r e p r e s e n tin g th o s e tw o q u a n titie s is a s tr a ig h t lin e . T h e slo p e o f th is lin e is k n o w n a s Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s , o r t h e m o d u lu s o f e la s tic ity . T h e m o d u lu s o f e la s tic ity is th e m a th e m a tic a l d e s c r ip tio n o f a n o b je c t o r s u b s ta n c e te n d e n c y to b e d e f o r m e d e la stic a lly (i.e . n o n - p e r m a n e n tly ) w h e n a fo rc e is a p p lie d to it T h e e la s tic m o d u lu s o f a n o b je c t is d e f in e d a s t h e s lo p e o f its s t r e s s - s tr a in c u r v e in th e e la s tic d e f o r m a tio n r e g io n 138I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей ^ stress strain W h e re la m b d a is t h e e la s tic m o d u lu s ; s tre ss is th e fo rc e c a u s in g t h e d e f o r m a tio n d iv id e d b y t h e a r e a to w h ic h th e fo rc e is a p p lie d ; a n d stra in is th e ra tio o f th e c h a n g e c a u s e d b y th e s tre ss to t h e o rig in a l s ta te o f th e o b ject. A n a lte rn a tiv e d e fin itio n is th a t th e e la stic m o d u lu s is th e stre s s r e q u ir e d t o c a u s e a s a m p le o f th e m a t e n a l t o d o u b le in le n g th . T h is is n o t re a lis tic fo r m o s t m a te ria ls a s th e v a lu e is g re a te r t h a n th e y ie ld s tre s s o f t h e m a te r ia l o r t h e p o i n t w h e re e lo n g a tio n b e c o m e s n o n l i n e a r , b u t s o m e m a y fin d t h i s d e f i n i t i o n m o r e in tu itiv e . S p e c ify in g h o w s tre s s a n d s tr a in a re t o b e m e a s u r e d , i n c lu d in g d ir e c tio n s , a llo w s f o r m a n y ty p e s o f e la s tic m o d u li t o b e d e fin e d . T h e th r e e p rim a r y o n e s a re: - Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s d e s c rib e s te n s ile e la s tic ity o r t h e te n d e n c y o f a n o b je c t t o d e fo rm a lo n g a n a x is w h e n o p p o sin g fo rc e s a re a p p lie d a lo n g t h a t ax is; it is d e fin e d as t h e r a tio o f t e n s ile s tre s s t o te n s ile s tra in . It is o fte n r e fe rre d to s im p ly a s th e e la s tic m o d u lu s . - T h e s h e a r m o d u lu s o r m o d u lu s o f rig id ity d e s c n b e s th e t e n d e n c y o f a n o b je c t to s h e a r w h e n a c te d u p o n b y o p p o s in g fo rc e s; it is d e fin e d a s s h e a r stre s s o v e r s h e a r s tra in . T h e s h e a r m o d u lu s is p a r t o f th e d e riv a tio n o f v isc o sity . - T h e b u lk m o d u lu s d e s c rib e s v o lu m e tr ic e la s tic ity , o r t h e te n d e n c y o f a n o b je c t to d e f o r m in a ll d ir e c tio n s w h e n u n if o r m ly lo a d e d in a ll d ir e c tio n s ; it is d e fin e d a s v o l u m e t n c stre s s o v e r v o l u m e t n c s tr a in , a n d is t h e in v e rs e o f c o m p re s s ib ility . T h e b u lk m o d u lu s is a n e x te n s io n o f Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s to t h r e e d im e n s io n s . P la s tic ity o r p la s tic d e f o r m a tio n is t h e o p p o s ite o f e la s tic d e f o r m a t i o n a n d is a c c e p t e d a s u n r e c o v e r a b le s tr a in . P la s tic d e fo rm a tio n is r e ta in e d e v e n a fte r th e re la x a tio n o f th e a p p lie d stress. M o s t m a te ria ls in th e lin e a r-e la s tic c a te g o ry a re u s u a lly c a p a b le o f p la s tic d e f o r m a t i o n . B r ittle m a te r ia ls , lik e c e r a m i c s , d o n o t e x p e rie n c e a n y p la s tic d e fo rm a tio n a n d w ill fra c tu re u n d e r rela tiv e ly lo w stre s s . M a t e n a l s s u c h a s m e ta ls u s u a lly e x p e n e n c e a s m a ll a m o u n t o f p la s tic d e f o r m a tio n b e fo re fa ilu re w h ile s o ft o r d u c tile p o ly m e rs w ill p la s tic a lly d e fo rm m u c h m o re 2 0 . G iv e a b r ie f ov e r v ie w o f th e str u c tu r e an d c o n t e n t s o f T e x t 6B. 2 1 . A n sw e r th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s. a ) W h a t is e la s tic ity ? b ) W h a t is t h e ty p e o f th e lin e r e p r e s e n tin g a p p lie d stre s s a n d th e r e s u ltin g str a in ? c ) W h a t a r e t h e d e f in itio n s o f m o d u lu s o f e la s tic ity ? d) W h a t d o Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s , th e s h e a r m o d u lu s a n d t h e b u lk m o d u lu s d e s c rib e ? e ) W h a t is p la s tic d e fo r m a tio n ? f) W h a t m a te r ia ls e x p e r ie n c e p la s tic d e f o r m a tio n 9 2 2 . R e a d T e x t 6 C “ N a n o te c h n o lo g y an d C o n s tr u c tio n ” and an sw e r th e q u e stio n s. D is c u s s y o u r an sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a) W h a t is n a n o te c h n o lo g y ? b ) W h y is th e siz e o f p a r tic le s so i m p o r t a n t in n a n o te c h n o lo g y ? c ) Is n a n o t e c h n o lo g y a n e w s c ie n c e ? d ) W h a t p r o s p e c ts d o e s n a n o te c h n o lo g y o ffe r? e ) W h a t w ill c o n s tr u c tio n b e n e f it f r o m n a n o te c h n o lo g y ? 0 W h a t n a n o - s iz e d p a r tic ip le s a r e a p p lie d to b u ild in g m a te n a ls ? g) W h a t h o ld s b a c k th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a n o te c h n o lo g y ? h ) W h e n w ill th e a d v a n c e s in th e u s e o f n a n o te c h n o lo g y a rriv e ? • TEXT 6C Nanotechnology and Construction N a n o te c h n o lo g y is th e u se o f very sm a ll p a rtic le s o f m a te ria l e ith e r b y th e m s e lv e s o r b y t h e i r m a n i p u l a t i o n to c r e a te n e w la rg e s c a le m a te r ia ls . T h e siz e o f th e p a r tic le s is v e r y im p o r t a n t b e c a u s e a t th e le n g th s c a le o f th e n a n o m e tr e , 10-9 m , th e p r o p e r tie s o f th e m a te n a l a c tu a lly b e c o m e a f f e c te d . T h e p r e c is e s iz e a t w h ic h th e s e c h a n g e s a r e m a n if e s te d v a rie s b e tw e e n m a te r ia ls , b u t is u s u a lly in th e o r d e r 140[Английский я зы к для студентовстроительныхспециальностей o f 100 n m o r less. N a n o te c h n o lo g y is n o t a n e w s c ie n c e a n d it is n o t a n e w te c h n o lo g y . It is r a t h e r a n e x te n s io n o f t h e s c ie n c e s a n d te c h n o lo g ie s th a t h a v e a lre a d y b e e n in d e v e lo p m e n t fo r m a n y y e a rs a n d it is th e logical progression o f th e w ork th a t h as b e e n d o n e to e x a m in e th e n a tu re o f o u r w o rld a t a n e v e r sm a lle r sc a le . A n a n o m e tr e is a b i l lio n th o f a m e tre . T h e r e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts in t h e s tu d y a n d m a n ip u la tio n o f m a te ria ls a n d p r o c e s s e s a t th e n a n o s c a le o ffe r th e ta n ta liz in g p r o s p e c t o f p r o d u c in g n e w m a c r o m a te r ia ls , p ro p e r tie s a n d p ro d u c ts . T h e c o n s tr u c tio n b u s in e s s w ill in e v ita b ly b e a b e n e fic ia ry o f th is n a n o te c h n o lo g y , in fa c t it is a lr e a d y in t h e fie ld s o f c o n c r e t e , ste e l a n d g la ss C o n c r e te is s tr o n g e r , m o r e d u ra b le a n d m o r e e a s ily p la c e d , s te e l t o u g h e r a n d g la ss s e lf-c le a n in g . In c r e a s e d s tr e n g th a n d d u ra b ility a re also a p a rt o f th e d n v e t o re d u c e t h e e n v iro n m e n ta l fo o tp r in t o f th e b u ilt e n v ir o n m e n t b y th e e ffic ie n t u s e o f re s o u rc e s . T h is is a c h ie v e d b o th p rio r to th e c o n s tru c tio n p ro c e s s b y a r e d u c tio n in p o l l u t i o n d u r in g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f m a te ria ls (e .g . c e m e n t ) a n d a lso in se rv ic e t h ro u g h e ffic ie n t u s e o f e n e rg y d u e to a d v a n c e m e n ts in in s u la tio n . T w o n a n o - s iz e d p a rtic le s t h a t s ta n d o u t in th e i r a p p lic a tio n to c o n s tr u c tio n m a te ria ls a re t i t a n i u m d io x id e ( T i 0 2 ) a n d c a r b o n n a n o tu b e s ( C N T s ) T h e fo r m e r is b e in g u s e d fo r its a b ility t o b re a k d o w n d ir t o r p o llu tio n a n d th e n a llo w it t o b e w a s h e d o f f b y r a m w a te r o n e v e ry th in g fro m c o n c r e te to g la ss a n d th e l a tte r is b e in g u s e d to s tre n g th e n a n d m o n i t o r c o n c r e te C N T s h a v e m a n y m o r e p ro p e rtie s , a p a rt fro m e x c e p tio n a l s tre n g th , th a t a re b e in g re s e a rc h e d in c o m p u tin g , a e ro s p a c e a n d o t h e r a re a s a n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s try w ill b e n e fit d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly fro m th o s e a d v a n c e m e n ts a s w ell. C o s t a n d th e re la tiv e ly s m a ll n u m b e r o f p r a c tic a l a p p lic a tio n s f o r n o w h o ld b a c k m u c h o f t h e p r o s p e c ts fo r n a n o te c h n o lo g y . H o w e v e r, c o n s tr u c tio n a lso te n d s to b e a f ra g m e n te d , lo w r e s e a r c h o n e n t e d a n d c o n s e rv a tiv e e n d e a v o u r a n d th is p la y s a g a in s t its a d o p t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o lo g ie s , e s p e c ia lly o n e s t h a t a p p e a r so fa r re m o v e d fr o m its c o re b u s in e s s . M a te r ia ls a re c o n s t r u c t i o n c o r e UNIT 6. BUILDING SCIENCE 141 b u s in e s s a n d th e p r o s p e c ts f o r m o r e c h a n g e s a r e s ig n if ic a n t in th e n o t to o d is ta n t fu tu re . In fa c t, th e re se a rc h e rs su rv e y e d a n d p r e d ic te d th a t m a n y a d v a n c e s w o u ld a r r iv e w ith in fiv e y e a rs . T h e s h e e r size a n d s c o p e o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s try m e a n s t h a t th e a c c o m p a n y in g e c o n o m ic im p a c t w ill b e h u g e . In o r d e r to c a p ita liz e o n th e e ffe c ts o f n a n o te c h n o lo g y o n t h e b u s in e s s , h o w e v e r , m u c h m o r e f u n d in g fo r c o n s tru c tio n re la te d re se a rc h , in c re a se d in te rd is c ip lin a ry w o r k in g b e tw e e n r e s e a r c h e r s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e tw e e n th o s e r e s e a r c h e r s a n d in d u s tr y is n e e d e d . SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 23. L is te n to th e T e x t “ T h e E la s t ic T h e o r y o f S tr u c t u r e s ” . a ) A n sw e r th e q u e stio n s t h a t fo llo w . 1. W h a t w a s a s ig n if ic a n t a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e first i n d u s t n a l age? 2. W h a t w a s it u s e d fo r? 3. T h e n a m e s o f s o m e f a m o u s s c ie n tis ts a r e m e n t i o n e d in th e t e x t : L E u ler, T h . Y o u n g , L. N avier, S. W h ip p le , A. R itter, J .C . M a x w e ll, a n d O . M o h r . W h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n s d id t h e y m a k e to th e e la s tic t h e o r y o f str u c tu r e s ? 4 . W h a t w e r e t h e s t r u c tu r e s o f t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y d e s ig n e d a n d fa b ric a te d w ith ? 5. W h y d id t h e e la s tic t h e o r y f o r m t h e b a s is o f th e s tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is u n til W o r ld W a r I I ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 6 A o f th e T e x t . L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t ab o u t th e e la s t ic th e o r y o f str u c tu r e s. 142 IАнглийскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей d) G iv e s o m e e x a m p le s o f t h e u s e o f t h e e la s tic th e o r y o f s t r u c tu r e s fro m y o u r o w n e x p e rie n c e . 24. L is te n t o th e T e x t “ N a n o te c h n o lo g y 's f o r R e a l in t h e B u ild in g I n d u s tr y ” a ) C o m p le te t h e s e n te n c e s a c c o r d in g t o t h e T e x t . 1. N a n o te c h n o lo g y is s o m e t i m e s ___________ as all____________ , w ith little re a l-w o rld ___________. 2. T a k e th e __________ th a t w e live a n d ___________ in , fo r in sta n c e . 3. Y o u w ill f in d ___________ u s e d t o c r e a t e s tr o n g e r s te e l, ___________ g la s s , s o la r - c o lle c tin g fa b ric s , a n d e v e n ____________ c o n c re te 4. S o l a r - c o l l e c t i n g ___________ is t h e firs t o f a n e w w a v e o f b u ild in g c o m p o n e n ts t h a t ___________s o la r ra d ia tio n in to ___________ . 5 . __________ s te e l is m o r e c o r r o s i o n _____________ t h a n c o n v e n tio n a l s te e l, a n d c a n r e d u c e ___________ c o s ts b y u p t o 5 0 % . 6 S m o g -e a tin g c o n c r e te is p r o d u c e d b y ___________a n a n o la y e r o f tita n iu m d io x id e to __________ , w h ic h trig g e rs a c a ta ly tic re a c tio n t h a t __________ . m a n y p o llu ta n ts in c o n ta c t w ith th e ___________. 7. A t t h e v e ry le a s t, th e s e m a t e r ia ls ___________ b u i ld i n g __________ co sts, le a v in g m o re m o n e y f o r o th e r ___________ , a n d th e y c a n h e lp c le a n u p th e ___________. 8. A n d fo r e v e ry n a n o m a te r ia l ___________ t o d a y , th e r e a re ___________s e v e n ty m o re i n ___________ a n d d e v e lo p m e n t, m e a n in g th a t b u i l d i n g ___________ a n d a r c h ite c tu r e a re in fo r s o m e b ig ___________th a n k s to sm all te c h n o lo g y . b ) C h e c k y o u r a n s w e rs w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s a n d T a p e s c r ip t 6 B o f th e T e x t. L o o k u p t h e w o rd s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a ry . c) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t n a n o te c h n o lo g y . UNIT 7 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1 . R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e th e a c t iv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ S tr u c tu r a l S y s t e m s ” a n d t r a n s la te t h e g iv e n s e n t e n c e s . 1 . cla d d in g n — облицовка, о б ш и в к а (с т е н з д а н и я ) e x te r io r c la d d in g [ i k 's t i a r i a ] — н а р у ж н а я о б ш и в к а the cladding. exterior cladding. T h e s e a n g le s p r o v id e a s p a c e t o fix t h e t o p o f T h e r e a r e m a n y d i f f e r e n t s ty le s a n d m a te r ia ls in 2 . la m in a ted v en e e r lu m b er [ 'l a e m i n e i t i d ѵ э 'п і э ] — Л В Л - б р у с , к о н стр у к ц и о н н ы й м атери ал, и зго то вл ен н ы й по тех н о ­ логии склейки н ескольки х слоев ш п о н а p ly w o o d [ 'p l a i w u d ] п — ф анера, клееная ф ан ера Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) o ffe rs s e v e ra l a d v a n t a g e s o v e r ty p ic a l m ille d lu m b e r : i t is s tr o n g e r , s tr a ig h te r , a n d m o r e u n if o r m . T h e b a s e is m a d e f r o m t o p q u a l i t y 3 . sp a n n v— plywood w i t h a ro u n d e d edge. пролет; п ерекры вать I n t h i s b u i l d i n g s te e l b e a m s h a v e b e e n u s e d b e c a u s e l o n g a r e in v o lv e d . T h e p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e p a n e ls span b e t w e e n spans th e beam s. 144I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 4 . j o is t f 'd j o i s t ] я — о п о р н а я б а л к а , п е р е к л а д и н а , р и г е л ь I - j o is t я — д в у т а в р , д в у т а в р о в ы й п р о ф и л ь flo o r j o is t — б а л к а п о л а , б а л к а м е ж д у э т а ж н о г о п е р е ­ кры тия o p e n w eb j o is t — б а л о ч н а я ф е р м а w o o d j o is t — д е р е в я н н а я б а л к а T h e w a lls s u p p o r t the joists w h ic h c a r r y t h e f lo o r . I-joists a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r v a lu e w h e n it c o m e s t o s iz e , s t r e n g t h , a n d r e lia b ility . T h e s p a c e s f o r the floor joists c a n b e c le a r ly s e e n . T h e m a m f u n c tio n o f an open webjoist is t o p r o v id e d ir e c t s u p p o r t f o r a r o o f o r a f lo o r d e c k a n d to tr a n s f e r th e lo a d im p o s e d o n th e d e c k to th e b e a m s a n d c o lu m n s . Wood joists s h o u ld n o t b e b u ilt in to s e p a r a tin g w alls. 5. align [ э 'і а і п ] v — в ы р а в н и в а т ь , ц е н т р о в а т ь alig n m e n t я — в ы р а в н и в а н и е , ц е н т р о в к а T h e resu lt o f th e se sh e a rin g stra in s is th a t th e fib e rs b e c o m e aligned a t r ig h t a n g le s t o t h e s h e a r stre ss. F i n e I - b e a m alignment i n h ig h rise b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s r e q u ir e d . 6. g lu e [g lu :] я v — к л е й ; к л е и т ь g lu ed la m in a te d b e a m — к л е ё н ы й б р у с , м н о г о с л о й н ы й к л еён ы й брус, к л еён ы й п р о ф и л и р о в а н н ы й брус the glue to are glued to g e th e r . T h e fo rc e o n o n e sh e e t o f w o o d is tr a n s m itte d th r o u g h a n o t h e r s h e e t o f w o o d . T h e th i n s h e e ts o f w o o d 7. fa b r ic a te [ 'f a e b r ik e it] v — п р о и з в о д и т ь , и з г о т о в л я т ь p refa b r ic a te v — и з г о т а в л и в а т ь з а в о д с к и м с п о с о б о м p refa b rica tio n я — з а в о д с к о е и з г о т о в л е н и е p refa b r ic a te d adj — с б о р н ы й , г о т о в ы й T h e n e w c e m e n t m a k e s it p o ssib le tofabricate re in fo rc e d c o n c r e te p r o d u c ts o f h ig h s tr e n g th . I n d u s tr ia lis e d b u ild in g m e a n s a h ig h d e g r e e o f prefabrication a p p lie d t o d o m e s tic o r o t h e r c o n s tr u c tio n s o a s t o r e d u c e site w o r k t o m in im u m . C ra n e s a re u s e d f o r asse m b lin g la r g e - s iz e prefabricated e le m e n ts . UNIT 7. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 145 8. roof truss — стропильная ферма This is a high sloping ceiling attached directly to the roof trusses and rising all the way to the top of the house. 9. strut n — стойка, распорка, сжатый элемент (конст­ рукции) lumber strut —деревянная стойка The formwork is put on the strut and the whole is concreted. 10. purlin ('pa: lin] n — прогон, обрешетина The helicopter was used to hoist and place in position prestressed concrete purlins. 11. brace ['breis] n v — растяжка, скоба, перекладина, стой­ ка, распорная балка; скреплять, связывать, придавать жесткость bracing п — связи жесткости, система связей, креп­ ление The paper describes the economical placing of braces in the walls of a rectangular building. We had to brace the walls when we put the new roof on. During this phase the bracing is fixed. 12. shape ['Jeipj n — профиль, форма T shape n — тавровый профиль channel ['tfaenl] n — швеллер, швеллерный профиль angle [ aerjl] n — уголковый профиль, уголок It is climate which determines the shape and construction of most buildings. The roof and floor frames are made up of beams and channels. Steel angles are fixed across the ends of the beams. 13. weld v — сваривать, варить welding n — сварка The bottom of each column is welded to a base plate. Welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, under water and in outer space. 146 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 14. rod п — стер ж ен ь, п рут, р е й к а The rods a re p la c e d n e a r th e b o tto m o f t h e c o n c r e te b e a m . 15. in -situ co n c r e te [ m 's itju :] — б е т о н , у л о ж е н н ы й н а с т р о й ­ п лощ ад ке; м о н о л и т н ы й б етон p reca st rein fo rced c o n c r e te — с б о р н ы й ж е л е з о б е т о н A b n c k is n o t fa b r ic a te d o n t h e s ite a s т -situ concrete, b u t is p re fa b ric a te d . It is precast reinforced concrete th a t p ro v id e d t h e h ig h sc a le o f c o n s tr u c t io n in th is c o u n tr y . 16. e x c e e d [ ik 's i.d ] v — п р е в ы ш а т ь , п р е в о с х о д и т ь T h e g a ra g e m u s t n o t 17. sla b n— exceed 3 0 m i in t h e f lo o r a re a . плита, панель c o n c r e te slab — б е т о н н а я п л и т а , б е т о н н а я п а н е л ь flo o r sla b — п л и т а ( п а н е л ь ) п е р е к р ы т и я , п л и т а н а с т и л а пола h o llo w sla b [ 'Ь э іэ и ] — п у с т о т н а я п л и т а The slabs a c t as p e r m a n e n t fo r m w o r k a n d p ro v id e v ery g o o d the concrete slabs w e re The floor slabs m e a s u r e 3 in s u la tio n . A few w e e k s la te r, la id a c ro s s t h e tu n n e l to f o rm th e ro o f. x 5 m and th e y h a v e b e e n m o u n te d s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith t h e m a in s tru c tu re o f th e b u ild in g . 18. fram ing ['fr e im ir j] — к а р к а с , р а м а , д е р е в я н н а я к о н с т ­ рукция fram e (fra m in g ) co n str u c tio n — к а р к а с н а я к о н с т р у к ц и я , рам н ая к о н струкц и я b a llo o n fra m in g [ b a 'h r .n ] — д е р е в я н н ы й б а л о ч н о - с т о е ч ­ н ы й ка р ка с (зд ан и я) S in c e th e e a rly 1920s, a lm o s t all h o m e s h a v e b e e n b u ilt u s in g w o o d framing construction. Balloon frammg'HZ& e m p lo y e d tw o -s to re y h o u s e s b e fo re 1930. in m a n y UNIT 7. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 19. b o lt [ 'b a u l t ] n J 147 v — болт; скр еп л ять, стяги вать болтам и a n c h o r b o lt [ 'a s p к э ] — а н к е р н ы й б о л т b o lte d c o n n e c tio n — б о л т о в о е с о е д и н е н и е E a c h b a s e p la te is fix e d to a c o n c r e te c o lu m n b a s e b y tw o T he beam s are bolted to 2 0 . g ir d e r f 'g a . d a ] The girders n bolts s te e l c o lu m n s . — главн ая балка, бал о чн ая ф ерм а s u p p o r t s m a lle r b e a m s . 2 . R e a d a n d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s . L o o k up th e ir tr a n s c r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e part o f sp eech . n, b a s e n v, c o n s t a n t adj, e c o n o m i c a l adj, p r o f ile n, adj, c o n f ig u r a tio n n, d o m i n a n t adj, h o r i z o n t a l adj, u n iv e r s a l adj, r a d i u s n, m o m e n t n, r e s u lt n v , c o n d i t i o n n, d i s tr ib u tio n n, n e u t r a l adj, c y lin d r ic a l adj, p o s i t i o n n v, a c c u r a c y n, s ta b le adj, e x c lu s iv e ly adv, s ta b le a d j, r e s is ta n c e n, p la tf o r m n, s e c tio n n, d o u b le v, b a r r i e r n S ta n d a r d c a t a s tr o p h ic 3 . M a t c h th e p a ir s o f s y n o n y m s fro m A an d В a n d t r a n s la te A В 1. m a n u f a c tu r e 2. b a r a. sp an b. p re fa b n c a tio n 3 . f a c in g c . f a b r ic a te 4. fra m e w o rk d . b o lt 5. f o r m e . w e ld in g 6 . v a u lt f. a l ig n m e n t 7. s c re w g . f r a m in g 8. lin e a r r a n g e m e n t h . sh a p e 9. p r e a s s e m b ly i. r o d 10. s o ld e r in g j. c l a d d in g 148 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 4. M a t c h th e verb o n th e le ft w ith a su ita b le ite m o n th e rig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1 g lu e a . t o a c e n t r e lin e o f a w a ll 2 exceed 3 b ra c e b . a c o lu m n t o t h e s te e l c h a n n e l 4 a lig n d . w o o d s h e e ts to g e th e r 5 in s ta ll e . a d i s ta n c e o f 1 m e tr e 6 w e ld f. a n g le s to c o n n e c tin g p la te s 7 sp an g . t h e le n g th o f t h e b e a m 8 c a st h. a h o u se 9. b o lt 10. p r e f a b r ic a te 5. c . a c o n c r e te s la b o n th e g r o u n d i. a g ir d e r t o s u p p o r t s m a lle r b e a m s j. m a s o n r y w a lls d u r in g c o n s t r u c t i o n M a k e th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o m p le te b y tr a n sla tin g th e w o rd s an d p h r a s e s in b r a c k e ts. 1. T h e r e is m i n im a l f n c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e b o l t a n d th e w o o d in t h e ( б о л т о в о е с о е д и н е н и е ) . 2. W ith t h e p a n e ls m a d e o f ( с б о р ­ н ы й ж е л е з о б е т о н ) , b u ild in g s u p t o 5 flo o rs h ig h c a n b e c o n s tr u c te d w ith o u t c o lu m n s o r b e a m s . 3. I t is s e e n a s a n e a s ie r i n s ta lla tio n a n d a b e t t e r s o lu tio n f o r s u p p o r tin g ro o f s a s o p p o s e d t o t h e u s e o f d im e n s io n a l ( д е р е в я н н ы е с т о й к и ) a n d ( о б р е ш е т и н а ) a s b r a c in g . 4 . А ( ш в е л л е р ) is w id e ly u s e d in b u ild in g p r a c tic e a s a b e a m . 5. S te e l is u s e d f o r ( к а р к а с н а я к о н с т р у к ц и я ) b e c a u s e it h a s h ig h te n s ile a n d c o m p r e s s iv e s tr e n g th . 6. ( Д е р е в я н н а я б а л о ч н о - с т о ­ е ч н а я к о н с т р у к ц и я ) o f r e s id e n tia l a n d c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g s in c r e a s e d in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y a n d c o n tin u e s to b e th e s ta n d a r d b u ild in g f o r m . 7. S te e l ( у г о л к и ) tie th e f r a m e to g e t h e r a n d a ls o p r o v id e a p la c e t o fix t h e to p o f t h e c la d d in g . 8. ( П р о л е т ) is th e c le a r d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e s u p p o r ts o f a n a r c h , b e a m o f ( с т р о ­ п и л ь н а я ф е р м а ) . 9. A c o n c r e te ( п л и т а п е р е к р ы т и я ) w a s p u t in p la c e . 10. ( М о н о л и т н ы й б е т о н ) is s t r o n g , d u r a b l e , s ta b le , r e a d ily a v a ila b le a n d re la tiv e ly e c o n o m ic in te r m s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n UNIT 7. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 149 a n d life t im e m a in te n a n c e . 11 T h e th ic k n e s s o f ( ф а н е р а ) u s e d s h o u ld n o t b e le ss t h a n 6 m m in th is ty p e o f s h u tte r . 12. T h e r o o f c o n s is ts o f a w a t e r p r o o f c o v e r in g a n d a r o o f s t r u c tu r e , w h ic h is m a d e o f ti m b e r ( о п о р н а я б а л к а ) a n d w o o d - w o o l slab s 6 . R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g w ord c o m b in a tio n s w h ich c o m e from th e t e x t s o f th e U n it. M in d th e u se o f n o u n s as a ttr ib u te s in p r e p o sitio n . L o o k up yo u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . W o o d p r o d u c ts , r o o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , la m in a te d v e n e e r lu m b e r f u n c tio n s , s u p p o r t w a lls, w o o d I - jo is ts , r o o f r a f te r s , c e ilin g jo is ts , a s ta n d a r d tr u s s , to p a n d b o t t o m c h o r d s , c o n c r e t e f lo o r s la b s , h a n d - h e l d w r e n c h e s , a b e a m a n d g ir d e r s y s te m , w o o d a n d s te e l c o n s t r u c t i o n , h a n d m a d e t i m b e r f o r m w o r k , f lo o r e l e m e n ts , m e ta l c o n n e c to r s , s tr u c tu r a l c o m p re s s io n m e m b e rs , s te e l-fra m e b u ild in g s , a b e a m p ro file , g ra v ity lo a d s , h ig h s tr e n g th s te e l te n d o n s (п у ч к о в а я а р м а т у р а ), m o m e n t c a rry in g c a p a c ity , a h ig h w a y b n d g e , a b e a m f o r c e , a b e a m s u p p o r t, a fo r c e o r f le x ib ility m e t h o d , a d ir e c t s tiffn e s s m e th o d , s te e l tru sse s. 7 . S tu d y th e follow in g p a tte r n s sh ow in g th e w ays so m e ad jectives a r e fo rm ed from verb s a n d n o u n s. C o m p le te th e c h a r ts. S o m e o f th e m issin g w o r d s a r e from t h e t e x t s o f th e U n it. R e a d and t r a n s la t e t h e m . U s e y o u r d ic t io n a r y t o h e lp y o u w it h t h e p r o n u n c ia tio n . Pattern 23 V e rb + - e n t / - a n t - > A d je c tiv e T h e - e n t / - a n t su ffix e s m e a n having quality. Example : d if f e r — р а з л и ч а т ь с я - > d if f e r e n t — р а з л и ч н ы й 150I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальноггей Verb Adjective depend c o rre s p o n d d o m in a te exist d is ta n c e Pattern 24 V erb + -iv e —> A d je c tiv e T h e -iv e suffix m e a n s having a tendency, character, or quality. Example: c o n s t r u c t — с т р о и т ь - > c o n s t r u c t i v e — с т р о и ­ тельны й Verb Adjective p ro d u c e ---------------------------------- act ---------------------------------- a ttra c t ---------------------------------- cre a te ---------------------------------- effect ---------------------------------- Pattern 25 V e r b + - y —> A d je c tiv e T h e - y su ffix m e a n s fu ll or converted with, tending to, like or typical of. Example: s u n — с о л н ц е - > s u n n y — с о л н е ч н ы й им и 7 . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Verb Adjective c lo u d _________________ m ig h t _________________ w o r th _________________ sm oke _________________ 151 SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8. R e a d a n d t r a n s la te t h e f o llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n to th e fo r m s a n d f u n c tio n s o f t h e G eru n d . a ) S u b je c t Example Smoking is n o t a llo w e d h e r e . — Курить (курение) з д е с ь н е р азр еш ается. 1. K n o w in g E n g lis h is h e lp f u l f o r a n y b u i l d i n g e n g in e e r . 2. C u ttin g s to n e s a n d ti m b e r s b e c a m e p o s s ib le w ith t h e in v e n tio n o f to o ls . 3. L e a r n in g t o u s e a c o m p u t e r is i m p o r t a n t f o r e v e ry civ il e n g in e e r . 4 . A d d in g h e a t t o a s u b s ta n c e d o e s n o t a lw a y s c a u s e a ris e o f its te m p e r a tu r e . 5. M a i n t a i n i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t in g o o d c o n d itio n h e lp s s tu d e n ts t o m a k e e x p e r im e n ts w ell. b ) P a r t o f a P r e d ic a t e Example H is g r e a te s t p le a s u r e is readingbooks. — С а м о е б о л ь ш о е у д о ­ чтение ( читать) к н и г ( и ) . вольствие д л я него — это 1. I n R u s s ia , m o s t o f t h e h o u s e s b u ilt a f t e r W o r ld W a r 11 w e re b ig , u s u a lly 5 - 1 0 s to r ie s h ig h , w ith s m a ll a p a r t m e n t s . I n th e s e b o ro u g h s , th e g o a l w as s a v in g sp a c e a n d c r e a tin g a s m a n y a p a r tm e n ts 152 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей as p o ssib le . 2. S e e in g is b e lie v in g . 3. T h e m o s t c o m m o n f lo o r fin is h is c a r p e tin g , m o s t o f w h ic h is n o w m a d e o f sy n th e tic fib re s. 4. O u r a im is fin d in g n e w w ays o f u sin g th is m a te ria l in th e b u ild in g in d u stry . 5. T h e p r o b le m to b e d isc u sse d is m a k in g a n e w p ro g ra m f o r a c o m p u te r . c ) D ir e c t O b ject Example I like readmg books. — М н е н р а в и т с я читать (чтение) к н и г и . T o m lik e s being read s u c h b o o k s. — Т о м л ю б и т , когда ему читают т а к и е к н и г и . I r e m e m b e r having seen th is film . — Я п о м н ю , что я смотрел этот ф ильм I r e m e m b e r having been told a b o u t th is мне рассказывали о б э т о м ф и л ь м е . film . — Я п о м н ю , что 1. A t th e b u ild in g site , p r e c a s t m e m b e r s a re j o in e d to g e th e r b y a n u m b e r o f m e th o d s , in c lu d in g w e ld in g to g e th e r m e ta l c o n n e c to r s c a st in to th e m o r p o u r in g a la y e r o f i n s itu c o n c r e te o n t o p o f f lo o r m e m b e rs , b o n d in g th e m to g e th e r. 2. I f y o u lik e w e a rin g h ig h h eels a n d b e a u tifu l c lo th e s, y o u m a y n o t b e h a p p y o n a b u ild in g site. 3. T h e y e x p e c te d b e in g g iv e n f u r th e r a s s is ta n c e . 4 . M o s t lo c a l a u th o ritie s s ta rte d p ro v id in g so c ia l h o u s in g , m a in ly fo r e ld e rly p e o p le w ith lo w in c o m e s . 5. H e r e m e m b e r s h a v in g b e e n s h o w n th is p ro je c t. d ) In d irect O b ject Example I a m p le a s e d with h is learning E n g lish . — Я д о в о л е н тем, что изучает а н г л и й с к и й я з ы к . W e a re in te r e s te d in being invited t o th e firs t n ig h t. — М ы з а ­ и н т е р е с о в а н ы в т о м , чтобы нас пригласили н а п р е м ь е р у . Н е r e p r o a c h e d h im s e lf for having said it. — О н у п р е к а л с е б я з а т о , что сказал э т о . Н е w a s s u r p r is e d at having been asked a b o u t it. — О н б ы л у д и в л е н , что его спросили о б э т о м . он UNIT 7 . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 153 1. T h e m u n i c i p a l e n g i n e e r s e rv e s lo c a l o r s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t d ire c tly in p la n n in g a n d s u p e r v is in g th e c o n s tru c tio n and m a n a g e m e n t o f w a t e r - s u p p l y a n d s e w a g e - d is p o s a l s y s te m s , r o a d s a n d b n d g e s , p u b l i c - t r a n s p o r t s y s te m s , p u b l i c b u ild in g s , a n d m a n y o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s o f m o d e m life . 2 . M y f r i e n d is g o o d a t s p e a k in g E n g lis h a n d G e r m a n . 3 . W h e n I w a s a t s c h o o l , I t h o u g h t o f w o r k in g in c o n s t r u c t i o n . 4 . T h e s e d e c i s i o n s a r e c o n n e c t e d w ith p la n n in g , o rg a n iz in g , d ire c tin g a n d c o n tr o llin g th e w o rk to b e d o n e . 5 . T h e i n v e s t o r s in s i s t e d o n b e i n g i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e f in a n c i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t t h e y s u p p o r t e d . e ) A ttr ib u te Example I d o n ’t lik e h is m a n n e r o f м анера reading. — М н е н е н р ав и тся его чтения. 1. I t is s e e n a s a n e a s i e r i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n f o r s u p p o r t i n g ro o fs a s o p p o s e d t o t h e u s e o f l u m b e r s t r u t s a n d p u r l i n s a s b r a c i n g . 2. T h e r e a r e t h r e e h is to r i c a l l y c o m m o n m e t h o d s o f f r a m i n g a h o u s e . 3 . T h e t a s k o f b u i l d i n g t h e p r o j e c t is t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a f ir m o f c o n t r a c t o r s . 4 . C iv il e n g i n e e r i n g is t h e p r o f e s s io n o f d e s ig m n g a n d e x e c u tin g s tr u c tu r a l w o rk s t h a t se rv e t h e g e n e r a l p u b lic . 5. M a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b e a m fo rc e s in c lu d e th e m o m e n t d is tr ib u tio n m e th o d , th e fo rc e o r fle x ib ility m e t h o d a n d t h e d i r e c t s tiffn e s s m e th o d . f ) A d v erb ia l M o d ifie r Example reading b o o k s . — М ы о б о г а щ а ­ е м с в о и з н а н и я , читая ( чтением) к н и г и . Н е e n te r e d t h e r o o m without being noticed. — О н в о ш е л в к о м ­ н а т у незамеченным. W e e n n c h o u r k n o w le d g e b y 1. G l u e d l a m i n a t e d b e a m s a r e c r e a t e d b y g l u e i n g t h e fa c e s t o g e t h e r t o c r e a t e b e a m s . 2 . T h e e n e r g y e ff e c tiv e n e s s o f s t o n e is 154I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o n s id e r e d a b ig d r a w - b a c k , a s s to n e is h a r d to k e e p w a r m w ith o u t u s in g la rg e a m o u n ts o f h e a tin g r e s o u rc e s . 3. F o r m o v in g s m a lle r v o lu m e s o f p e o p le a n d fre ig h t, h y d r a u lic e le v a to rs a r e u se d . 4 . A f te r h a rd e n in g , th e flo o r s u rfa c e is m a c h m e p o lish e d to e x p o se t h e m a rb le c h ip s . 5. T h e lig h te s t a n d m o s t e f f ic ie n t s tr u c tu r a l s h a p e is th e b a r j o is t, a s ta n d a r d tr u s s m a d e w ith a n g le s f o r t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m c h o r d s , jo i n e d b y w e ld in g t o a w e b m a d e o f a c o n t i n u o u s b e n t r o d . 6 . T h e c o n c e p t o f a s ta tic a lly d e t e r m i n a t e s tr u c tu r e — t h a t is, a s tr u c tu r e w h o s e fo r c e s c o u ld b e d e te r m in e d f r o m N e w t o n ’s la w s o f m o t i o n a lo n e — w a s s e t f o r t h b y O t t o M o h r i n 18 7 4 , a f te r h a v in g b e e n u s e d in tu itiv e ly f o r p e r h a p s 4 0 y e a rs . 9 . U s e t h e G eru n d o f th e v erb s in b r a c k e ts. D e fin e th e fu n c tio n s o f t h e G eru n d an d tr a n sla te th e ir s e n t e n c e s . 1. T h e g o v e r n m e n t c r e a te d c o m p a n ie s t h a t e m p lo y e d p e o p le in ( to b u ild ) d a m s a n d r o a d s , h o u s e s a n d p a r k s . 2. W e k n e w n o t h in g a b o u t h is ( to h a v e b e e n s e n t) t o N e w Y o rk . 3. T h e r e is a b ig d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n ( b u ild ) a h o u s e a n d ( d e s ig n ) a c o m p u t e r sy ste m . 4. B u ild in g is th e p ro c e s s o f ( c o n s tr u c t) b u ild in g s a s d is tin c t f r o m t h e a r t o r s c ie n c e o f (d e s ig n ) b u ild in g s , w h ic h is a r c h ite c tu r e . 5. S o m e o r a ll th e jo in ts b e tw e e n t h e b e a m s a n d c o lu m n s a r e rig id ly j o i n e d t o g e th e r b y (w e ld ) t h e s te e l o r ( p o u r ) t h e c o n c r e t e in s itu . 6. T h e y b e g a n ( ta lk ) a b o u t t h e s ta te o f t h e b u ild in g m a r k e t. 7. ( L o a d ) h e a v y w e ig h ts r e q u ir e s g r e a t sk ill. 8. H e is p r o u d o f ( h a v e w o n ) in th e c h e s s to u r n a m e n t . 9. I n ( p r o p o r t i o n ) t h e m ix , t h e a g g r e g a te s a r e g r a d e d in s iz e . 10. A s b e s to s is c a p a b le o f ( w ith s ta n d ) v e ry h ig h te m p e r a tu r e s , a n d a t th e s a m e t im e (d e f le c t) h e a t. 11. T h e lig h te s t a n d m o s t e f f ic ie n t s tr u c tu r a l s h a p e is th e b a r jo i s t , a s ta n d a r d tr u s s m a d e w ith a n g le s o n th e t o p a n d b o t t o m c h o r d s , j o i n e d b y (w e ld ) t o a w e b o f a c o n t i n u o u s b e n t r o d . 1 0 . R e a d and tr a n sla te t h e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e verb al n o u n . Example There a r e th re e turnings to th e rig h t. UNIT 7 . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 155 cooking in t h e h o u s e . making o f c o n c r e te is d iffic u lt. T h e m e a t w ill b e f in e w ith slo w cooking. T h is writing is h a r d t o re a d . I h a v e d o n e so m e shopping th is m o rn in g . M y s is te r d o e s th e The I. I n in d u s tr ia liz e d c o u n tr ie s t h e m ix in g a n d d e liv e ry o f liq u id c o n c r e te t o b u i ld in g s ite s h a v e b e e n m e c h a n iz e d . I f th e s p a n is la rg e r, t h e i n c r e a s in g lo a d r e q u ire s a lo c a l t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e sla b a r o u n d th e c o lu m n s . 2. T h e p ro g r a m fo c u s e s o n th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c o n s tr u c tio n te c h n o lo g y , c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e m e n t p ro c e s s e s . 3. I f t h e s p a n is la rg e r, t h e in c re a s in g l o a d re q u ir e s s o m e th ic k e n in g o f t h e sla b a r o u n d th e c o lu m n s . 4 . I t is n o w v e ry d iffic u lt t o f in d c h e a p h o u s in g fo r r e n t. 5. W a ll s h e a th in g , u s u a lly a p ly w o o d o r o t h e r l a m in a te , is u s u a lly a p p lie d t o th e fra m in g p r i o r t o e r e c t i o n , th u s e lim in a tin g t h e n e e d t o s c a ffo ld . 6. T h is e c c e n t r i c lo a d in g c r e a te s a n i n te r n a l m o m e n t, a n d , in t u r n , in c re a s e s t h e m o m e n t c a r r y in g c a p a c ity o f t h e b e a m . 7. L in te ls a re t h e h o r iz o n ta l m e m b e r s p la c e d o v e r w in d o w , d o o r a n d o t h e r o p e n in g s t o c a r r y lo a d s t o t h e a d jo in in g s tu d s . 8 . T h e c o m in g o f th e in d u s tr ia l a g e m a r k e d a m a jo r c h a n g e in t h e ro le o f th e b u ild in g e n g in e e r. I I . F in d th e s e n te n c e s in w h ich th e - in g fo rm is a ) a verb al n o u n o r b ) a g eru n d . T r a n s la te th e s e n te n c e s in to R u ssia n . 1. T h e p ile s a re p u t in p la c e b y d riv in g t h e m in to th e g ro u n d w ith la rg e m e c h a n i c a l h a m m e r s . 2. T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f b r o n z e , a n d la te r ir o n , te c h n o lo g y in th is p e n o d le d t o t h e m a k in g o f m e ta l to o ls fo r w o r k in g w o o d , s u c h a s a x e s a n d saw s. 3. T h e d ra w in g s w e re e ra se d d u rin g th e fin a l fin ish in g o f th e w a ll su rfaces. 4. P o rtla n d c e m e n t is e a s ily m a n u f a c t u r e d b y b u r n in g s h a le a n d lim e s to n e . 5. O p e n in g s w e re c u t th ro u g h th e fra m in g a n d s h e a th in g as re q u ire d . 6. T h e a v e ra g e w a itin g tim e f o r a n e le v a to r b e tw e e n p re s s in g t h e c a ll b u t t o n a n d a m v a l m u s t b e le ss t h a n 3 0 s e c o n d s i n a n o ffic e 156], 156 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей b u ild in g a n d le ss th a n 6 0 s e c o n d s in a n a p a r t m e n t b u ild in g . 7 A d d in g s o u n d -a b s o rb e n t m a te ria l to a h a ll im p ro v e s it fo r s p e e c h b u t d e t r a c t s fro m its m u s ic a l q u a litie s . 8. I n b u ild in g s w ith fu lly c o n t r o l l e d a tm o s p h e re s , d o u b le g la z in g is c o m m o n t o re d u c e h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d b o th i n te r io r a n d e x t e n o r c o n d e n s a tio n o n t h e g la ss. 9 E x t e r i o r w a ll s tu d s a re th e v e r tic a l m e m b e r s to w h ic h th e w a ll s h e a th in g a n d c la d d in g a re a tta c h e d . 10 T ru s s e s a re h o llo w e d - o u t in w h i c h t h e s tre s s e s a re c h a n n e le d in to s le n d e r lin e a r m e m b e r s m a d e o f ro lle d s h a p e s t h a t a re j o i n e d b y w e ld in g o r b o ltin g in to sta b le t r i a n g u l a r c o n fig u ra tio n s . 12, C o m p a r e th e -in g fo r m s — th e G er u n d , th e V erb a l N o u n and t h e P r e s e n t P a r tic ip le in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . I n e v e r y c a s e s t a t e th e su b je c t and th e p r e d ic a te . T r a n s la te th e s e n te n c e s in to R u s s ia n . 1. M e m b e r s t h a t sp a n flo o rs a n d ro o fs a re u s u a lly p re te n s io n e d , a n o t h e r p re s tre s s in g te c h n iq u e , w h ic h is s im ila r in p r i n c i p l e t o p o s t - t e n s i o m n g . 2. A b e a m is a s tr u c tu r a l e l e m e n t t h a t is c a p a b le o f w it h s t a n d i n g lo a d p rim a rily b y re s is tin g b e n d in g 3. T h e m a k in g o f c l e a r p la te g la ss w a s p e rfe c te d in t h e la te 1 9 th c e n tu ry . 4 U n d e r g r a v ity lo a d s , t h e o rig in a l l e n g th o f th e b e a m is s lig h tly re d u c e d to e n c l o s e a s m a lle r ra d iu s a rc a t t h e t o p o f th e b e a m , r e s u ltin g in c o m p r e s s i o n . 5. W ith t h e c o m in g o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e , th e r e w a s a f u r t h e r d iv is io n o f la b o u r in t h e d e s ig n p ro c e s s . 6. B a llo o n fra m in g u s in g a t e c h n i q u e s u s p e n d in g flo o rs f ro m th e w a lls w a s c o m m o n u n t i l t h e la te 1940s. 7. F r a m in g is a b u ild in g te c h n i q u e b a s e d a r o u n d s tr u c tu r a l m e m b e rs w h ic h p ro v id e a sta b le fr a m e t o w h ic h i n t e r i o r a n d e x te r io r w a ll c o v e rin g s a re a t t a c h e d a n d c o v e re d b y a r o o f c o m p r is in g h o riz o n ta l c e ilin g jo is ts a n d slo p in g ra fte rs (to g e th e r f o r m i n g a t r u s s s tm c tu r e ) . 8. A p re c is e t h e o r e tic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e t r u s s , a n d m a jo r u s e o f it in b u ild in g s , d id n o t c o m e u n til t h e 1 9 th c e n tu r y . 9. T h e s ta n d a rd ro lle d s h a p e s a re fre q u e n tly u s e d a s b e a m s a n d c o lu m n s , t h e w id e fla n g e , o r W s h a p e , b e in g th e m o s t c o m m o n . 10. P l a tf o r m f r a m in g o f te n fo rm s w a ll s e c tio n s UNIT 7 . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS h o r iz o n ta lly o n t h e s u b - f lo o r p r i o r to e r e c t i o n , e a s in g p o s i tio n in g o f s tu d s a n d i n c r e a s in g a c c u r a c y w h ile c u t t i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y m a n p o w e r . 11. I n E g y p t t h e e x tr a c tin g , m o v in g , a n d w o r k in g o f s to n e w e r e c o s tly p r o c e s s e s , a n d th e q u a r r y in g o f s to n e w a s a s ta te m o n o p o ly . SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13 . B e fo r e yo u read T e x t 7 A “ S tr u c tu r a l S y s t e m s ” , d is c u s s th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s o r t e a c h e r . a ) D o y o u k n o w w h a t s tr u c tu r a l s y s te m s a r e 9 b ) W h a t p a r ts o f a b u ild in g c a n b e m a d e f r o m w o o d ? c ) H o w d o e s l a m i n a t e d v e n e e r lu m b e r f u n c tio n ? d ) W h a t a r e I - jo is ts u s e d fo r? e ) W h a t a d v a n ta g e s d o m a n u f a c tu r e d tr u s s e s h a v e ? f) W h y is s te e l o n e o f th e m a jo r s tr u c tu r a l m a te r ia ls 9 g ) W h a t s tr u c tu r a l s h a p e s d o y o u k n o w ? h ) H o w a r e s te e l fr a m e s e r e c te d a t th e b u ild in g s ite ? i) W h a t is in s itu c o n c r e t e u s e d fo r? j ) W h a t is th e o ld e s t f r a m in g s y s te m ? k) W h a t is p r e te n s io n in g ? l) W h a t m e t h o d s a r e u s e d to j o i n p r e c a s t e le m e n ts t o g e th e r ? m ) W h a t is th e d o m i n a n t f o r m o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in R u s s ia 9 1 4 . R e a d T e x t 7 A t o fin d o u t i f y o u r a n sw e r s a r e r ig h t o r w ron g. • TEXT 7 A S tru c tu ra l System s T h e s tr u c tu r e s o f b u ild in g s a r e m o s tly s k e le to n fr a m e s o f v a rio u s ty p e s . N e w d o m e s tic h o u s in g in m a n y p a r ts o f th e w o r ld t o d a y is 158I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o m m o n ly m a d e f r o m tim b e r - f r a m e d c o n s tr u c tio n . W o o d p r o d u c ts a r e b e c o m in g a b ig g e r p a r t o f t h e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s tr y . T h e y m a y b e u s e d in b o t h r e s id e n tia l a n d c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g s a s s tr u c tu r a l a n d a e s th e tic m a te r ia ls . In b u ild in g s m a d e o f o t h e r m a te n a ls , w o o d is s t i l l f o u n d a s a s u p p o r t i n g m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n r o o f c o n s tr u c tio n , in i n t e r i o r d o o r s a n d t h e i r f r a m e s , a n d a s e x te r io r c l a d d in g . L a m in a te d v e n e e r l u m b e r f u n c tio n s a s b e a m s t o p ro v id e s u p p o r t o v e r la rg e s p a n s , s u c h as r e m o v e d s u p p o r t w a lls a n d p la c e s w h e r e d im e n s io n a l lu m b e r is n o t s u f f ic ie n t, a n d a ls o in a r e a s w h e r e a h e a v y lo a d is b e a r in g f r o m a f lo o r , w a ll o r r o o f a b o v e o n a s h o r t s p a n . W o o d I - jo is ts a r e u s e d f o r f lo o r jo is ts o n u p p e r flo o rs . T h e y a r e e n g in e e r e d f o r lo n g s p a n s a n d a r e d o u b le d u p in p la c e s w h e r e a w all w ill b e a lig n e d o v e r th e m . G lu e d la m in a te d b e a m s a re c r e a te d b y g lu e in g th e fa c e s to g e th e r to c r e a te b e a m s . B y g lu e in g m u lti p ie , c o m m o n siz e d p ie c e s o f lu m b e r t o g e th e r a c t a s o n e la rg e r p ie c e o f lu m b e r . M a n u f a c tu r e d tr u s s e s a r e u s e d in h o m e c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a p r e - f a b r ic a te d r e p la c e m e n t f o r r o o f r a f te r s a n d c e ilin g jo is ts . I t is s e e n a s a n e a s ie r in s ta lla tio n a n d a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n f o r s u p p o r t i n g ro o fs as o p p o s e d to th e u se o f lu m b e r s tru ts a n d p u rlin s as b ra c in g . S te e l is o n e o f t h e m a j o r s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s in b u ild in g s . I t is a s t r o n g a n d s t i f f m a te r ia l. I t c a n b e q u i c k l y f a b n c a t e d a n d e r e c t e d . T h e l ig h te s t a n d m o s t e f f i c i e n t s t r u c t u r a l s h a p e is t h e b a r ( o r o p e n w e b ) j o i s t , a s t a n d a r d t r u s s m a d e w ith a n g le s f o r th e to p a n d b o tto m ch o rd s, j o in e d b y w e ld in g to a w e b m a d e o f a c o n tin u o u s b e n t r o d . I t is u s e d a lm o s t e xclusively to s u p p o r t r o o fs a n d c a n s p a n u p to 45 m e tre s. T h e s ta n d a r d ro lle d s h a p e s a r e f r e q u e n tly u s e d a s A s te e l I-b e a m , in th is c a se u s e d to s u p p o r t w o o d b e a m s in a h o u s e . b e a m s a n d c o ,u m n s ’ t h e W lde fla n Be ’ o r W s h a P e - b e in 8 th e m o s t c o m m o n . W h e re s te e l UNIT 7 . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 159 b e a m s s u p p o r t c o n c r e te flo o r sla b s p o u r e d o n t o a m e ta l d e c k , th e y c a n b e m a d e t o a c t c o m p o s ite ly w ith th e c o n c r e te . S te e l c o lu m n s a re jo in e d t o f o u n d a tio n s w ith b a s e p la te s w e ld e d to t h e c o lu m n s a n d h e ld b y a n c h o r b o lts e m b e d d e d in th e c o n c re te . T h e e r e c tio n o f s te e l f r a m e s a t t h e b u ild in g s ite c a n p r o c e e d v ery ra p id ly , b e c a u s e all t h e p ie c e s c a n b e h a n d le d b y c ra n e s a n d a ll th e b o lte d c o n n e c tio n s c a n b e m a d e sw iftly b y w o rk e rs w ith h a n d - h e l d w re n c h e s. R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e is a ls o a m a jo r s tr u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l in b u ild in g s . I n s itu c o n c r e t e is u s e d f o r f o u n d a tio n s a n d f o r s t r u c ­ tu r a l s k e le to n fra m e s . T h e o ld e s t f r a m in g s y s te m is t h e b e a m a n d g ir d e r s y s te m , w h o s e f o r m w a s d e r iv e d f r o m w o o d a n d s te e l c o n s tru c tio n : slab s r e s t o n b e a m s , b e a m s rest o n g ird e rs , a n d g ird e rs re s t o n c o lu m n s i n a r e g u la r p a tte r n . T h is s y s te m n e e d s m u c h h a n d m a d e t i m b e r fo r m w o r k , a n d i n e c o n o m i e s w h e r e l a b o u r is e x p e n s iv e o t h e r sy s te m s a re e m p lo y e d . O n e is t h e p a n j o i s t s y s te m , a s ta n d a r d iz e d b e a m a n d g ir d e r s y s te m o f c o n s t a n t d e p t h f o r m e d w ith p r e f a b r ic a te d s h e e t - m e t a l fo rm s . T h e s im p le s t a n d m o s t e c o n o m ic a l flo o r s y s te m is t h e flat p la te w h e r e a p la in f lo o r sla b re s ts o n c o lu m n s s p a c e d a p a r t. I f th e s p a n is la rg e r, t h e in c r e a s in g lo a d r e q u ire s a lo c a l t h i c k e n i n g o f th e slab a r o u n d t h e c o lu m n s . C o n c r e t e c o lu m n s a re o f r e c ta n g u la r o r c i r c u l a r p ro f ile a n d a re c a s t in p ly w o o d o r m e ta l fo rm s . T h e r e in fo rc in g steel n e v e r e x c e e d s 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e c r o s s - s e c tio n a l a r e a to g u a r d a g a in s t c a t a s t r o p h i c b r ittle fa ilu re in c a s e o f a c c id e n ta l o v e rlo a d in g . P r e c a s t c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s a re f a b r ic a te d u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d itio n s in a fa c to ry . M e m b e r s t h a t s p a n flo o rs a n d ro o fs a re u s u a lly p r e t e n s i o n e d , a n o t h e r p r e s tre s s in g t e c h n i q u e , w h ic h is sim ila r in p r in c ip le to p o s t-te n s io n in g . P re c a s t p re s tre s s e d f lo o r e l e m e n ts a re m a d e i n a n u m b e r o f c o n f ig u r a tio n s . T h e s e in c lu d e b e a m s o f r e c t a n g u l a r c ro s s s e c t i o n , h o llo w f l o o r s la b s , a n d s in g le - a n d d o u b l e - s t e m T s h a p e s . P r e c a s t c o n c r e t e c o l u m n s a r e n o t u s u a lly p r e s tre s s e d a n d h a v e p r o je c tin g sh e lv e s t o re c e iv e flo o r m e m b e r s . A t t h e b u ild in g s ite , p r e c a s t m e m b e r s a r e jo in e d t o g e t h e r b y a n u m b e r o f m e t h o d s , i n c l u d i n g w e ld in g t o g e t h e r 160 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей m e ta l c o n n e c to r s c a st in to t h e m o r p o u n n g a l a y e r o f in situ c o n c r e te on to p o f flo o r m e m b e rs, b o n d in g th e m to g e th e r. P re c a s t p r e s tr e s s e d c o n s tr u c tio n is w id e ly u s e d , a n d it is th e d o m in a n t fo r m o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in R u s s ia a n d E a s te r n E u r o p e 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 7A th e p aragrap h sa y in g a b o u t rein fo r c e d c o n c r e t e r egard ed a s o n e o f th e m ajor str u c tu r a l m a te r ia ls in b u ild in g s an d tr a n s la te it in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p aragrap h 6 o f T e x t 7 A . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s. a ) They m a y b e u s e d in b o t h r e s id e n tia l a n d c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g s as s tr u c tu r a l a n d a e s th e tic m a te n a ls . W h a t d o es th e p r o n o u n b) They they r e f e r t o ? a re e n g i n e e r e d f o r lo n g s p a n s a n d a r e d o u b le d u p in p l a c e s w h e r e a w a ll w ill b e a lig n e d o v e r t h e m . W h at d o es th e p ro n o u n c) It It c a n It is it r e f e r t o ? b e q u ic k ly f a b r ic a te d a n d e r e c te d . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n e) to ? is a s tr o n g a n d s tif f m a te r ia l. W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n d) they re f e r it re f e r to 9 u s e d a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly t o s u p p o r t ro o fs W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n it r e f e r t o ? 0 they c a n b e m a d e t o a c t c o m p o s ite ly w ith t h e c o n c r e te . W h a t d o e s t h e p r o n o u n they r e f e r to ? g) These i n c lu d e b e a m s o f r e c t a n g u la r c r o s s s e c tio n , h o llo w f lo o r s la b s , a n d s in g le - a n d d o u b l e - s t e m T s h a p e s W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n these r e f e r to ? UNIT7. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 161 1 8 . U n d e r lin e o r m ark th e m ain id e a s o f T e x t 7A an d r e te ll it in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 7 B “ B e a m s ” an d try to u n d e r sta n d w h a t it is a b o u t an d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is k n ow n to y o u . •TEXT 7 В Beams A b e a m is a s tr u c tu r a l e l e m e n t t h a t is c a p a b le o f w ith s ta n d in g l o a d p r im a r ily b y re s is tin g b e n d in g . T h e b e n d in g fo rc e i n d u c e d in to t h e m a te r ia l o f th e b e a m as a re s u lt o f t h e e x te r n a l lo a d s a n d e x te r n a l re a c tio n s t o t h e s e lo a d s is c a lle d a b e n d in g m o m e n t. B e a m s g e n e ra lly c a rry v e rtic a l g r a v ita tio n a l f o rc e s b u t c a n a ls o b e u s e d t o c a rry h o n z o n ta l lo a d s (i.e . lo a d s d u e t o a n e a r th q u a k e o r w in d ) . T h e lo a d s c a r r ie d b y a b e a m a re tr a n s f e r r e d t o c o lu m n s , w a lls, o r g ird e rs , w h ic h th e n tr a n s f e r th e fo rc e t o a d ja c e n t s tru c tu ra l c o m p r e s s io n m e m b e r s . B e a m s a re c h a ra c te riz e d b y t h e ir p ro file ( th e s h a p e o f t h e ir c ro s s s e c t i o n ) , t h e i r le n g t h , a n d t h e i r m a t e r i a l . In c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s tr u c tio n , b e a m s a re ty p ic a lly m a d e o f s te e l, re in fo rc e d c o n c r e te o r w o o d . O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n ty p e s o f s te e l b e a m is t h e Ib e a m o r w id e - f la n g e b e a m (a ls o k n o w n a s a u n iv e rs a l b e a m o r , f o r s t o u t e r s e c tio n s , a u n iv e rs a l c o l u m n ) . T h is is u s e d in s te e lf ra m e b u ild in g s a n d b rid g e s . O t h e r c o m m o n b e a m p r o file s a re th e C -c h a n n e l, t h e h o llo w s tru c tu ra l s e c tio n b e a m , th e p i p e , a n d th e a n g le . I n te r n a lly , b e a m s e x p e r ie n c e c o m p r e s s iv e , te n s ile a n d s h e a r s tre s s e s a s a r e s u lt o f th e l o a d s a p p lie d t o th e m . T y p ic a lly , u n d e r g ra v ity lo a d s , t h e o rig in a l le n g th o f t h e b e a m is slig h tly re d u c e d to e n c lo s e a s m a lle r r a d iu s a r c a t th e t o p o f t h e b e a m , re s u ltin g in c o m p r e s s io n , w h ile t h e s a m e o n g in a l b e a m le n g th a t th e b o t t o m o f th e b e a m is slig h tly s tr e tc h e d t o e n c lo s e a la rg e r ra d iu s a rc , a n d s o is u n d e r te n s io n . A b o v e t h e s u p p o rts , t h e b e a m is e x p o s e d to s h e a r s tre s s . 6 Зак 312 162 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей T h e r e a re s o m e re in fo rc e d c o n c r e te b e a m s t h a t a re e n tir e ly in c o m p re s s io n . T h e se b e a m s a re k n o w n a s p re stre sse d c o n c re te b e a m s , a n d a re f a b n c a te d t o p ro d u c e a c o m p re s s io n m o re th a n th e e x p e c te d t e n s io n u n d e r lo a d in g c o n d itio n s . H ig h s tre n g th s te e l te n d o n s a re stre tc h e d w h ile th e b e a m is c a s t o v e r th e m . T h e n , w h e n th e c o n c re te h a s b e g u n to c u r e , th e t e n d o n s a re re le a s e d a n d th e b e a m is im m e d ia te ly u n d e r e c c e n t n c a x ia l lo a d s . T h is e c c e n t r i c lo a d in g c r e a te s a n in te r n a l m o m e n t, a n d , in t u r n , in c re a s e s t h e m o m e n t c a rry in g c a p a c ity o f th e b e a m . T h e y a re c o m m o n ly u s e d o n h ig h w a y b rid g e s. M a th e m a tic a l m e th o d s fo r d e te rm in in g t h e b e a m fo rc e s (in te rn a l fo rc e s o f t h e b e a m a n d th e fo rc e s t h a t a re im p o s e d o n th e b e a m s u p p o r t) in c lu d e th e m o m e n t d is tr ib u tio n m e t h o d , t h e fo r c e o r fle x ib ility m e th o d a n d th e d ire c t stiffn e ss m e th o d . M o s t b e a m s in re in fo rc e d c o n c r e t e b u ild in g s h a v e r e c ta n g u la r c ro s s s e c tio n s , b u t t h e m o s t e f f ic ie n t c ro s s s e c tio n is a u n iv e rs a l b e a m . A u n iv e rs a l b e a m is o n ly t h e m o s t e ffic ie n t s h a p e in o n e d ir e c tio n o f b e n d in g - u p a n d d o w n lo o k in g a t th e p ro file a s a n I. I f t h e b e a m is b e n t sid e to s id e , it f u n c tio n s a s a n H w h e r e it is le ss e ffic ie n t. T h e m o s t e f fic ie n t s h a p e f o r b o t h d ir e c tio n s i n 2 D is a b o x ( a s q u a re s h e ll), h o w e v e r t h e m o s t e f fic ie n t s h a p e f o r b e n d in g in a n y d ir e c tio n is a c y lin d r ic a l sh e ll o r tu b e . E ffic ie n c y m e a n s th a t fo r th e s a m e c ro s s s e c tio n a l a r e a ( v o lu m e o f b e a m p e r le n g th ) su b je c te d to t h e s a m e lo a d in g c o n d itio n s , t h e b e a m d e fle c ts less. O t h e r s h a p e s , lik e L ( a n g le s ), C (c h a n n e ls ) o r t u b e s , a r e a ls o u s e d in c o n s tr u c tio n w h e n th e r e a re sp e c ia l r e q u ire m e n ts . 2 0 . G ive a brief overview o f tb e structure and co n ten ts o f T e x t 7 B . 2 1 . R e la te e a c h h e a d in g t o th e c o r r e sp o n d in g p a r a g r a p h o f T ext 7B. a ) B e a m p ro file s. b ) B e a m fo rc e s. c ) A b e n d in g m o m e n t. UNIT 7. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 163 d ) B e a m sh a p e s . e ) T h e s tr e s s e s e x p e r ie n c e d b y a b e a m . f) T h e lo a d s c a r r ie d b y a b e a m . g ) P r e s tr e s s e d c o n c r e te b e a m s . 22. R e a d T e x t 7 C “ F ra m in g C o n s tr u c tio n ” an d a n sw e r th e q u e stio n s. D is c u s s y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a) W h a t s o r t o f b u ild in g t e c h n iq u e is f r a m in g ? b ) W h a t m e m b e r s d o e s w a ll f r a m in g in c lu d e ? c ) W h a t a re th e c o m m o n m e th o d s o f fr a m in g ? d ) W h a t is p o s t a n d b e a m f ra m in g c h a r a c te r iz e d b y ? e ) W h a t is sp e c ific o f b a llo o n fra m in g ? f) W h a t d o e s p l a tf o r m fr a m in g c o n s is t in ? g) W h y is a m u ltip le s tu d p o s t u s e d a t e x t e n o r c o m e r s ? h ) W h a t s u p p o r ts t h e u p p e r flo o rs , c e ilin g a n d r o o f? i) W h a t a r e lo a d b e a n n g a n d n o n - l o a d b e a r i n g w a lls? j) W h a t a r e lin te ls c o n s tr u c te d o f? k) W h e n a r e th e a s s e m b le d s e c tio n s n a ile d to g e th e r ? • TEXT 7C Fram ing Construction F r a m in g is a b u ild in g te c h n iq u e b a s e d o n s tr u c t u r a l m e m b e r s w h ic h p r o v id e a s ta b le f r a m e t o w h ic h i n t e r i o r a n d e x t e r i o r w a ll c o v e rin g s a r e a tta c h e d a n d c o v e r e d b y a r o o f c o m p r is in g h o r iz o n ta l c e ilin g jo is ts a n d slo p in g ra fte rs ( to g e th e r f o r m in g a tr u s s s t r u c tu r e ) o r m a n u f a c t u r e d p r e - f a b r i c a t e d r o o f t r u s s e s — a ll o f w h ic h a r e c o v e r e d b y v a r io u s s h e a th in g m a te r ia ls t o g iv e w e a t h e r re s is ta n c e . W a ll f r a m in g in h o u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n in c lu d e s t h e v e r tic a l a n d h o r iz o n ta l m e m b e r s o f e x t e n o r w a lls a n d in t e r i o r p a r t i t i o n s , b o t h o f b e a r in g w a lls a n d n o n - b e a r i n g w a lls. S tu d s , w a ll p la te s a n d lin te ls s e rv e as a n a ilin g b a s e f o r a ll c o v e r in g m a te r ia l a n d s u p p o r t th e u p p e r f lo o r p la tf o r m s , w h ic h p r o v id e t h e la te r a l s tr e n g th a lo n g a w a ll. T h e p la tf o r m s m a y b e th e b o x e d s tr u c tu r e o f a c e ilin g a n d 6* 1 6 4 | Английский языкдля студентов строительных специальностей r o o f , o r th e c e ilin g a n d f lo o r jo is ts o f th e s to r e y a b o v e . T h e r e a re th r e e h is to r ic a lly c o m m o n m e th o d s o f fra m in g a h o u s e . — P o s t a n d b e a m f r a m in g is n o w u s e d in b a r n c o n s tr u c tio n . — B a llo o n fr a m in g u s in g a te c h n i q u e s u s p e n d in g flo o r s f r o m t h e w a lls w a s c o m m o n u n til th e la te 1940s, b u t s in c e t h a t tim e p la tf o r m f r a m in g h a s b e c o m e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m o f h o u s e c o n s tr u c tio n . — P la tf o r m fra m in g o fte n f o rm s w a ll s e c tio n s h o riz o n ta lly o n th e s u b - f l o o r p r i o r t o e r e c t i o n , e a s i n g p o s i t i o n i n g o f s tu d s a n d in c r e a s in g a c c u r a c y w h ile c u ttin g th e n e c e s s a ry m a n p o w e r. T h e to p a n d b o t t o m p la te s a r e e n d - n a ile d to e a c h s tu d w ith tw o n a ils. S tu d s a r e a t le a s t d o u b le d a t o p e n in g s , t h e j a c k s tu d b e in g c u t to re c e iv e t h e lin te ls ( h e a d e r s ) t h a t a r e p l a c e d a n d e n d - n a i l e d th r o u g h th e o u t e r s tu d s . W a ll s h e a th in g , u s u a lly a p ly w o o d o r o t h e r l a m in a te , is u s u a lly a p p lie d t o th e f r a m in g p r i o r to e r e c tio n , th u s e lim in a tin g th e n e e d to sc a ffo ld . A m u l t ip le - s tu d p o s t m a d e u p o f a t le a s t th r e e s tu d s is g e n e ra lly u s e d a t e x te r io r c o m e r s a n d in te r s e c tio n s t o s e c u r e a g o o d tie b e tw e e n a d jo in in g w a lls a n d t o p r o v id e n a ilin g s u p p o r t f o r t h e in t e r i o r f in is h a n d e x te r io r s h e a th in g . C o m e r s a n d in te r s e c tio n s , h o w e v e r, m u s t b e f r a m e d w ith a t le a st tw o stu d s . N a ilin g s u p p o r t f o r th e e d g e s o f t h e c e ilin g is r e q u ire d a t th e j u n c t i o n o f th e w a ll and c e ilin g w h e re p a r titio n s r u n p a r a lle l t o th e c e ilin g jo is ts . W a ll f r a m i n g c o n s tru c tio n A two-story wooden-frame house under construction — the location of the upper floor platform is readily discerned by the wide joists between the floors, and the upper structure rests on this platform. v e rtic a l and in h o u s e in c lu d e s th e h o riz o n ta l m e m b e rs o f e x te r io r w alls a n d in te r io r p a r titio n s . S tu d s , w a ll p la te s a n d lin te ls s e rv e a s a n a ilin g b a s e f o r a ll c o v e r in g m a te ria l a n d s u p p o rt th e u p p e r flo o rs , c e ilin g a n d ro o f . UNIT 7 . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 165 E x te r io r w a ll s tu d s a re t h e v e rtic a l m e m b e r s t o w h ic h t h e w a ll s h e a th in g a n d c la d d in g a re a tta c h e d . T h e y a re s u p p o rte d o n a b o tto m p la te o r f o u n d a t i o n sill a n d in t u r n s u p p o r t t h e t o p p la te . I n t e r i o r p a r titio n s s u p p o r tin g flo o r, c e ilin g o r r o o f lo a d s a re c a lle d lo a d b e a n n g w a lls; o t h e r s a re c a lle d n o n - l o a d b e a n n g o r s im p ly p a r titio n s . I n t e n o r lo a d b e a r in g w a lls a re f r a m e d in th e s a m e w a y a s e x t e n o r w alls. L in te ls ( h e a d e r s ) a re t h e h o r i z o n t a l m e m b e r s p la c e d o v e r w in d o w , d o o r a n d o t h e r o p e n in g s to c a r r y lo a d s t o th e a d jo in in g s tu d s . L in te ls a re u s u a lly c o n s t r u c t e d o f tw o p ie c e s o f l u m b e r s e p a ra te d w ith s p a c e rs to th e w id th o f th e s tu d s a n d n a ile d t o g e th e r to f o r m a s in g le u n it. T h e p re fe r a b le s p a c e r m a t e r i a l is rig id in s u la tio n . T h e c o m p le te w a ll s e c tio n s a re th e n ra is e d a n d p u t in p la c e , te m p o r a r y b r a c e s a d d e d a n d t h e b o t t o m p l a te s n a ile d th r o u g h th e su b flo o r t o th e f lo o r fra m in g m e m b e rs . O n c e th e a s s e m b le d s e c tio n s a re p lu m b e d , th e y a re n a ile d to g e th e r a t th e c o r n e r s a n d in te rs e c tio n s . A s t n p o f p o ly e th y le n e is o f te n p la c e d b e tw e e n th e m t e n o r w a lls a n d t h e e x t e n o r w a ll, a n d a b o v e t h e firs t t o p p l a t e o f i n te r io r w a lls b e f o r e t h e s e c o n d t o p p la te is a p p lie d t o a t t a i n c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e a ir b a m e r w h e n p o ly e th y le n e is se rv in g th is fu n c tio n . A s e c o n d t o p p la te u s u a lly la p s th e first p la te a t th e c o m e rs a n d p a r t i t i o n i n t e r s e c tio n s a n d , w h e n n a ile d i n p l a c e , p r o v id e s a n a d d itio n a l tie t o t h e f r a m e d w a lls. SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 23. a) L is te n t o th e T e x t “A H o r iz o n ta l S u p p o r t” . A n sw e r th e q u e s tio n s th a t fo llo w . 1. W h a t is a b e a m ? 2. W h a t m a te r ia ls c a n b e a m s b e m a d e o f? 3 . W h a t f o rc e s a re b e a m s u s u a lly s u b je c te d to ? 166[ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 4 . W h a t c o n d itio n s a re re in f o r c e d b e a m s u s e d u n d e r ? 5 . W h a t e l e m e n ts c a n b e a m s re s t o n ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 7 A o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u d o n o t k n ow in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t b e a m s. d ) T e ll y o u r g ro u p m a tes a b o u t b e a m s b a se d o n th e in fo rm a tio n to b e c o lle c te d . 24. L iste n t o th e T e x t “ R o o f” . a ) W h ic h o f th e s e sta te m e n ts a r e tr u e an d w h ich a r e fa lse ? 1. T h e r o o f d e sig n d e p e n d s o n th e c lim a te o f t h e p la c e in w h ic h a b u ild in g is lo c a te d . 2 . T h e r o o f o f a b u ild in g p r o t e c t s p e o p le fr o m r a in a n d s u n . 3. W h e re it o f te n ra in s , t h e r o o f s lo p e s s te e p ly . 4 . I t is c o n v e n ie n t t o liv e in a h o u s e w ith s lo p in g sid e s. 5. T r ia n g u la r fra m e w o rk s a re c a lle d tru s s e s . 6. I n th e M id d le A g e s th e w o o d e n fra m e o f t h e r o o f w a s h id d e n b y a c e ilin g . 7. T h e h a m m e r - b e a m r o o f in c r e a s e d t h e e ffe c t o f h e ig h t a n d sp a c e . 8. T h e w a te r p r o o f c o v e rin g o f a p i t c h e d r o o f is m a d e o f th ic k sla b s o f b a k e d c la y . 9. S h e e ts o f w e a t h e r p r o o f ro o f in g - f e lt h e lp t o k e e p o u t ra in s . 10. W h e n a r o o f c o v e rs a la rg e s p a c e , w o o d tru s s e s a re u s e d . b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 7 B o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n ow in th e d iction ary. c) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t d iffe r e n t ty p e s o f ro o fs. UNIT 8 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING ffl SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1 . R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e t h e a c t iv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ E n g in e e r in g fo r B u ild in g s” an d tr a n sla te t h e g iv e n s e n t e n c e s . 1. s a fe [ 's e if ] adj — б е з о п а с н ы й , н а д е ж н ы й s a fe ty [ 's e r f ti] n — б е з о п а с н о с т ь , н а д е ж н о с т ь A safe c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n fo llo w s a ll safety r e g u la tio n s . 2. c o lla p s e [ k a 'la e p s ] n v — р а з р у ш е н и е , в ы х о д и з с т р о я , кр у ш ен и е; р азр у ш аться, осл аб евать, вы х о д и ть и з стр о я A f a ilu r e in te n s ile s t r e n g th m a y r e s u lt in the collapse o f th e b e a m . B u ild in g s t e n d to collapse d u r in g a n e a r th q u a k e . 3. u tiliz e [ j u i t i l a i z ] v — и с п о л ь з о в а т ь , у т и л и з и р о в а т ь In h e r n e w jo b h e r ta le n ts will be b e t t e r utilized t h a n b e fo re . 4 . g o a l [ 'g a u l ] n — ц е л ь , з а д а ч а a c h ie v e a g o a l [ a 'tf i:v ] — д о с т и ч ь ц е л и T h e f ir m m a n a g e d to achieve s a fe ty goals th r o u g h in c e n tiv e p a y . 5. s c a le [ 's k e il] n — м а с ш т а б , ш к а л а ; с в о д и т ь к о п р е д е л е н ­ н ом у м асш табу, оп ред елять м асш таб H o u s e b u ild in g is b e in g c a r r ie d o u t o n a la r g e scale. T h is t h e r m o m e t e r h a s tw o scales m a r k e d o n it. I n a m a p d r a w n t o th e scale 1 : 5 0 ,0 0 0 , o n e c e n t i m e t e r r e p r e s e n ts h a l f a k ilo m e tr e . 168 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 6. b e d istin c t fro m [ d i 's tir jk t] — о т л и ч н ы й ( о т д р у г и х ) T h o s e tw o c o n s tr u c tio n p la n s are q u ite distinctfrom e a c h o th e r. 7. e m e r g e [ Т т э : cfc] v — п о я в л я т ь с я em e r g e n c e [ Т т э : c fcans] n — появление S o m e n e w th e o n e s emerged on E g y p tia n p y r a m id c o n s tr u c tio n . T h e 1980s s a w the emergence o f m a n y n e w b u ild in g p ra c tic e s . 8. d e a l (w ith ) [d i:l] v — и м е т ь д е л о ( с ) , р а с с м а т р и в а т ь вопрос I n th e b u ild in g fie ld w e u su a lly 9. se r v ic e [ 's a : vis] deal with c o m p le x p la s tic s . n — с л у ж б а , о б с л у ж и в а н и е ; (pi.) к о м м у ­ н и к ац и и , и н ж ен ерн ое оборудование здан и я s e r v ic e a b ility [ ,s a :v is a 'b iliti] п — п о л е з н о с т ь , п р и г о д ­ н ость, э к с п л у атац и о н н ая н адеж н ость, р а б о то сп о со б ­ н о с ть T h e y re q u ire a c c e s s to t h e c e ilin g v o id to in s ta ll the services. In c iv il e n g in e e n n g , serviceability re fe rs to th e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h a b u ild in g is still c o n s id e r e d u se fu l. 10. c a rry o u t v — п р о в о д и т ь , в ы п о л н я т ь A ll o p e ra tio n s c a n be carried out o n th e t o p o f th e c o n c r e te slab. 11. e n tir e [ i n 't a i a ] adj — п о л н ы й , с о в е р ш е н н ы й , ц е л ы й adv — п о л н о с т ь ю , в с е ц е л о , с о в е р ш е н н о en tirely [in 'ta ia li] T h e 2 0 th c e n tu ry s aw d e e p c h a n g e s in t h e entire ra n g e o f b u ild in g . T h e u n its c a n b e p u t u p b y u n s k ille d la b o u r, entirely b y h a n d , a n d w ith o u t th e u se o f m e c h a n ic a l e q u ip m e n t. 12 sw a y n v — качание; качаться, н аклон яться T h is n e w ty p e o f c o n s tr u c tio n is p e rfe c tly sa fe ; b u t in t h e s e a rc h fo r a p e r f e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n o t h e r f a c to r h a s e n t e r e d — sway. L ik e tre e s , ta ll b u ild in g s m u s t b e a b le to sway in t h e w in d . U N I T 8. 13. linear [Ч іп іэ ] STRUCTURALENGINEERING 169 adj — линейный A linear dimension is measured along a straight line. 14. retain [ri'tein] v — удерживать, поддерживать, сохра­ нять A building with a large volume in relation to its surface area retains more heat. 15. advance [ad'vams] n v — продвижение вперед, успех, прогресс; продвигаться вперед, делать успехи, разви­ ваться There have been great advances in building construction in the last 50 years. The construction plan is advancing well. 16. behave [bi' heiv] v — работать (о конструкции, материале) behaviour [bi'heivja] n — работа, свойства, характерис­ тика, поведение (системы) Metals behave in different ways when heated. A system of equations that describes the nonlinear behaviour of beams is presented. 17. technique [tek'ni:k] n — методика, метод, способ, про­ цедура, технический прием, технология An interesting new technique for constructing concrete roofs was developed by the structural engineering department. 18. conform (to) [ksn'fam ] v — соответствовать (чему-л.), согласоваться (с), приспосабливаться, подчиняться (пра­ вилам) 19. precise [pri'sais] adj — точный, определенный precisely [pri'saisli] adv — точно, определено accurate ['aekjurat] adj — точный, тщательный 170I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей a cc u r a te ly ['a e k ju r s tli] adv — т о ч н о T h is m a k e s it ea sy fo r t h e s u rv e y o r t o ta k e precise m e a s u re m e n ts fo r an y p o in t o f th e a re a . T h e c o m in g o f th e I ro n A g e b ro u g h t to o ls w h ic h m a d e p o s s ib le fin e c a lc u la te d 20. accurate s to n e c u ttin g . L o a d s c a n b e accurately term [ta :m ] n — срок; терм и н in te r m s o f — с т о ч к и з р е н и я T h a t w a s h is s e c o n d term a s P r i m e M i n i s t e r . T h i s is a terms a n d b u ild in g in d u stry c o m p re h e n s iv e d ic tio n a ry o f c o n s tru c tio n te rm in o lo g y lis te d m a lp h a b e tic a l o rd e r. R o u g h c a r p e n tr y is t h e jo b o f th e fra m in g c a i p e n t e r in terms o /c o n s t r u c t i o n . 2 . R ea d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g in tern a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th eir tr a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p art o f sp e e c h . C r ite r ia n, d is c o m fo rt n, e m p ir ic a l adj, u tiliz e v, in s ta ll v, r e v o lu tio n n, p y r a m id n, f o rm a liz e v, d y n a m ic adj, c r e a tiv ity n, lic e n s e v, a c c r e d it v, p r o fe s s io n a l n adj, e la s tic adj, t o p o g r a p h ic adj, c lie n t n, s u m m a r iz e v, p r o c e s s n, a d a p t a t i o n n, a tm o s p h e r e n, fin a l adj, fu n d n. 3 . M a tc h th e p a irs o f a n to n y m s from A and В an d tr a n s la te them . A 1. d i f f e r 2. d i s a p p e a r a n c e 3. in c o m p le te 4. 5. 6. 7. c u rv e d s ta n d s im ila r in e x a c t 8. ris k В a. e n tire b . c o lla p s e c. p re c is e d. c o n fo rm e. s a fe ty f. e m e rg e n c e g. l i n e a r h . d is tin c t UNIT 8 . STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 4. I 171 M a t c h th e n o u n ( s ) o n th e le f t w ith a su ita b le ite m o n th r ig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1. A t e c h n i q u e a . c a n ’t b e a c h ie v e d . 2. T h e a d v a n c e b . c h e c k s t h e b e a m s tr a in . 3. T h e g o a l c . is f o r t h r e e y e a rs. 4 . T h e b u ild in g sw a y d . w a s p r o v id e d f o r. 5. T h e te r m e . s h o w s s tr a n g e b e h a v io u r . 6 . S e r v ic e a b ility f. w a s d e v e lo p e d . 7. A s t r u c tu r a l e n g in e e r g . w a s t a k e n in to a c c o u n t. 8 . T h e s tr u c tu r e h . w a s m a d e in c o n s t r u c t i o n . 5. R e p la c e th e u n d erlin ed w o rd s w ith th e w o rd s b elo w . a) c a rry o u t b ) te c h n iq u e s d) r e ta in e ) a c c u r a te c ) u tiliz e 0 g) em e rg e h) behave i) s e r v ic e s j) c o lla p s e sw a y 1. A g r e a t a m o u n t o f e ffo rt is s p e n t o n th e c o r r e c t a p p lic a tio n o f f o r m u l a s . 2 . R e s e a r c h in t h e f ie ld p r o g r e s s e d t h e g e n e r a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h o w s te e l b e a m s a c t u n d e r s in g le a n d c o m b in e d lo a d s . 3. T h e y r e g u la r ly p e r f o r m u r g e n t r e p a ir s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t a t th is p la n t. 4 . T h is b r id g e c a n fa ll d o w n u n d e r th e w e ig h t o f t h e tr a in . 5. D e s ig n p r o f e s s io n a ls a n d b u ild e r s s h o u ld w o r k in a n i n t e g r a te d p r o c e s s in o r d e r to s p e c ify a n d m a k e u se o f m a t e r i a l s in a m a n n e r t h a t w ill r e d u c e o r e l i m i n a t e w a s te . 6. S o m e c r a c k s in b e a m s c a n a p p e a r d u r in g c o n s tr u c tio n 7. D u r in g r e c e n t y e a rs a n in te r e s tin g c h a n g e h a s b e e n g r a d u a lly b r o u g h t a b o u t m th e v a rio u s m e th o d s o f b u ild in g c o n s tr u c tio n e m p lo y e d m R u ssia. 8. T h e p i p e s a n d c a b le s w h ic h p e n e t r a t e th e f l o o r /c e ilin g s y s te m m u s t in c o r p o r a te a n a p p r o v e d fire s to p p in g s y s te m o r m u s t b e e n c lo s e d in f ire r e s is tin g s h a fts . 9 W h a t is t h e le g a l te m p e r a t u r e a b u ild in g m u s t k e e p in t h e w in te r in th is a r e a ? 10. T h e y d e v e lo p e d s o m e m e th o d s f o r te s tin g s tr u c tu r e s p e r m i t t e d to m o v e to a n d f r o . 172 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 6. R ea d an d tr a n s la t e th e fo llo w in g gro u p s o f s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n to t h e w ord s in ita lic s w h ich c a n fu n c tio n a s a n ou n an d a verb , o r a verb an d a n a d je c tiv e , o r a n o u n an d an a d je c tiv e , w ith th e sa m e fo r m . T h e y c a n h a v e sim ila r o r d iffe r e n t m e a n in g s. L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . terms. terms o f e m p lo y m e n t. c . S h e t h o u g h t o f e v e r y th in g in terms o f m o n e y . 1. a H e is f a m ilia r w ith b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n b . T h e c o n t r a c t sp e c ifie s t h e 2. a. I k n o w h o w t o c o n v e r t F a h r e n h e it t o t h e c e n tig ra d e b. scale. Scale t h e o ld p a i n t f r o m th e c e ilin g . large-scale m a p . H e u s u a lly deals w ith s u c h p r o b le m s e ffe c tiv e ly . T h is b o o k deals w ith t h e life o f V .G . S h u k h o v . T h e c o m p a n y deals i n b u ild in g m a te r ia ls . T h e c o m p a n y w a n ts t o h ir e a safe d riv e r. P u t y o u r v a lu a b le s in t h e safe. T h e y c r e a t e d safe w o r k in g c o n d itio n s a t th e p la n t. T h e y g a v e m e a n advance o f a m o n t h ’s p a y . H e d id h is j o b in advance. H e c o u l d advance a n e w th e o r y . c . I a m l o o k in g f o r a 3. a. b. c. 4 . a. b. c. 5. a. b. c. 7. S tu d y th e fo llo w in g p a tte r n s sh o w in g th e w a y s so m e verb s a r e form ed fro m a d je c tiv e s o r n o u n s. C o m p le te th e c h a r ts. S o m e o f th e m issin g w o r d s a r e from th e t e x t s o f th e U n it. R ea d an d t r a n s la t e t h e m . U s e y o u r d ic t io n a r y t o h e lp y o u w ith t h e p r o n u n cia tio n . Pattern 26 A d je c tiv e /N o u n + - e n - » V e rb Example, b r o a d — ш и р о к и й - » b r o a d e n — р а с ш и р я т ь UNIT 8 . STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Adjective/Nom 173 Verb s tr e n g th -------------------- le n g th -------------------- w id e -------------------- w eak -------------------- q u ic k -------------------- Pattern 27 I A d je c tiv e /N o u n +-a te - » V e r b j Example, m o tiv e — м о т и в - > m o tiv a te — м о т и в и р о в а т ь Adjective/Noun Verb re g u la r ---------------------------------- a ctiv e ---------------------------------- s tim u lu s ---------------------------------- o n g in ---------------------------------- o rc h e s tra ---------------------------------- Pattern 28 j A d j e c tiv e /N o u n + - i s e / - i z e - » V e rb | Example s p e c ia l — с п е ц и а л ь н ы й - > s p e c i a l i z e - с п е ц и а л и з и ­ роваться Adjective/Noun Verb fo r m a l m i n ____________________ _ o d d u s e m t r i a ______________________ l ______________________ 174I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o m p u te r su m m a ry Pattern 29 j Example: A d j e c tiv e /N o u n + - if y /- f y - » V e r b [ d iv e rs e — р а з н о о б р а з н ы й —►d iv e rs ify — р а з н о о б ­ р ази ть Adjective/Noun Verb p u re ______________________ sim p le ______________________ sp e c ific ______________________ in te n s e ______________________ SECTION 2 $ 8. GRAMMAR R ead an d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s w ith o n e (o n e s ) u se d a s in d e fin ite p r o n o u n s m e a n in g e v e r y o n e /a n y o n e a n d a s s u b stitu tio n w o r d s. U s e y o u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . Example One s h o u ld b e c a re fu l w h e n c ro s s in g th e stre e t. — С л е д у е т б ы т ь осторож н ы м п р и переходе через улицу. 1 d o n ’t h a v e a p e n . I m u s t b u y one. — У м е н я н е т р у ч к и . Я долж ен купить ручку. 1. S o m e tim e s o n e c a n f in d b r ic k s o f a m u c h la r g e r siz e t h a n a n o r m a l o n e . 2. O n e c a n ’t l e a m E n g lis h m a m o n t h . 3. C o n c r e te UNIT 8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 175 s tr u c tu r a l f ra m e s h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e o f c o s tin g less th a n ste e l o n e s , b u t th e y m u s t u s u a lly b e r e in f o r c e d b y ste e l t o c a r r y l o a d s 4. O n e c a n ’t g e t a d r iv in g lic e n c e u n t i l o n e is e ig h te e n . 5. M o s t g a r d e n s , e v e n s m a ll o n e s , h a v e f lo w e r s a n d a la w n . 6 C u r r e n tly , th e m a in d is tin c tio n w h ic h ca u se s o n e to s p e a k o f c o m p u te r - a id e d a r c h ite c tu ra l d e s ig n ( C A A D ) r a th e r t h a n c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d e s ig n ( C A D ) lie s m th e d o m a i n k n o w le d g e ( a r c h i t e c t u r e - s p e c i f i c o b je c ts , t e c h n iq u e s , d a ta , a n d p r o c e s s s u p p o r t) e m b e d d e d in th e s y s te m . 7. O n e s h o u ld k n o w t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c iv il e n g i n e e r i n g a n d b u il d i n g e n g in e e r in g . 8. P e o p le t h i n k i n g o f b u y in g a h o u s e a s k a r e a lto r to s h o w t h e m se v e ra l h o u s e s . W h e n th e y d e c id e o n o n e , th e y d is c u s s th e p r ic e w ith th e p e o p le w h o a r e s e llin g it 9. I n e a r ly t im e s th e o n ly la rg e b u ild in g s w e r e c o m m u n a l o n e s s u c h a s g r a n a r ie s a n d p la c e s o f w o r s h ip f o r th e i r g o d s . 10. “ Is it e a s y t o g o c a m p in g in th e c o u n t r y ? ” — “ Y e s , b u t o n e is n o t a llo w e d to c a m p w h e r e o n e lik e s. O n e c a n o n ly u s e c a m p - s i t e s . ” 9. R e a d an d t r a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n to t h e m e a n in g an d u s e s o f t h a t ( th o s e ) . Example that p e n c i l (those p e n c ils ) , p le a s e — Д а й т е м н е , тот к а р а н д а ш (m e к а р а н д а ш и ) . T h e p r ic e o f g o ld is h ig h e r t h a n that o f silv e r. — Ц е н а н а з о л о ­ т о в ы ш е цены с е р е б р а . T h e fa x that a r r iv e d in t h e m o r n i n g is in y o u r file — Ф а к с , который п р и б ы л у т р о м , н а х о д и т с я в в а ш е й п а п к е . I t h i n k t h a t h e is r ig h t. — Я д у м а ю , что о н п р а в G iv e m e п ож алуйста, 1. O n ly w ith th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f str u c tu r a l t h e o rie s th a t e m e rg e d d u r in g t h e 1 9 th a n d 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s th e p r o f e s s io n a l s tr u c t u r a l e n g in e e r c a m e in to e x is te n c e . 2. C a v ity w a lls h a v e a h e a t- f lo w r a te t h a t is 5 0 p e r c e n t o f t h a t o f a s o lid w a ll. 3. T h e s e c o n d s y s te m is d e e p s tr u c tu r e w h ic h m e a n s t h a t th e o p e r a tio n s p e r f o r m e d b y th e c o m p u t e r h a v e n a tu r a l lim ita tio n s . 4. S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g is a fie ld o f e n g in e e r in g d e a lin g w ith t h e a n a ly sis a n d d e sig n o f s tr u c tu r e s 176 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей t h a t s u p p o r t o r resist lo a d s 5. T h e u p p e r lim it o f c o n c r e te s tr e n g th is s e t b y t h a t o f th e s to n e u s e d in th e a g g re g a te . 6. T h e t r a d itio n a l m e t h o d u s e s jo is ts s im ila r to th o s e o f f lo o r c o n s tr u c tio n t o s p a n b e tw e e n e x t e n o r w a lls 7. C o m p le x b u ild in g r e g u la tio n s w e re im p o s e d b y c ity a u th o n tie s t o e n s u r e t h a t b u ild in g s w e re stru c tu ra lly s o u n d a n d s ta b le , th a t th e y h a d e n o u g h lig h t a n d a ir a r o u n d th e m , a n d t h a t t h e y lo o k e d n g h t. 8. N o w t h a t la c k o f h o u s in g is a s o c ia l p r o b le m , e s p e c ia lly w ith t h e h ig h n s e in h o u s e p n c e s . 9. T h e f o u n d a tio n s o f t h o s e b u ild in g s s u p p o r t c o n s id e r a b ly h e a v ie r lo a d s th a n th o s e o f r e s id e n tia l b u ild in g s . 10. T h e p e o p le c o n s tr u c te d th o s e h o u s e s f ro m w h a te v e r m a te n a l w a s a v a ila b le w h e r e th e y liv e d . 11. S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g d e s ig n u tilis e s a re la tiv e ly s m a ll n u m b e r o f b a s ic s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n ts to b u ild u p s tr u c tu r a l s y s te m s t h a t c a n b e v e ry c o m p le x . 12. B u ild in g d e s ig n p ro f e s s io n a ls in c lu d e th o s e lic e n s e d b y th e sta te — s u c h a s a rc h ite c ts a n d s tru c tu ra l, m e c h a n ic a l, a n d e le c tric a l e n g in e e rs — w h o m u s t fo rm a lly c e rtify t h a t th e b u ild in g th e y d e sig n w ill c o n f o r m to a ll g o v e r n m e n ta l c o d e s a n d re g u la tio n s . 10. R e a d an d m em o rize th e p r e p o sitio n s o f tw o o r m o r e w o r d s. T r a n s la te th e giv en s e n te n c e s . 1 according to согласно чет 7 2 apart from не считая кроме, іе говоря уже о 3 as to относительно, что ка Actordtng to the timetable the tram leaves at 8 15am Father was the only one who knew you thoroughly, apart from me Mr Pike inquired as to the exchange pnce сается 4 as well as так же как 5 because of благодаря, из-за 6 by means of посредство и lie to благодаря всіедствие 8 in addition to в допознениек 11 in spite of несмотря на This article is interesting as well as useful I couldn't get to work because of my illness Thoughts are expressed b\ means o f words Our success was due to luck In addition to giving a general introduction to computers, the course also provides practical experience I will wait for you m front o f the shop He stood on the chair in order to reach the top shelf. In spite o f the threat of war, he says he remains confident that peace is possible____ UNIT8. STRUCTURALENGINEERING 12 instead of вместо 13 in view of ввидi , принимая во внимание 14 on account o f из-за по при­ чине, вследствие 15 owing to из-за, б тгодаря 16 with (in) reg ard to что ка­ сается относительно 17 thanks to б іагодаря из за вследствие 177 He accepted the realities instead o f resisting them. In view o f his youth, the police have decided not to press charges He couldn’t read the speech himself, on account of a sore throat Flights were delayed owing to the stnke With regard to your recent application, I am afraid we are unable to offer you the job Thanks to the new network, clerks will be able to deal with all the payments at one time 11. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the prepositions of two or more words. 1. This document forms an agreement between the client and the design team as to the expected building size and performance. 2. Computer-aided architectural design (CAAD) refers to the use of any computational technique m the field of architectural design other than by means of architecture-specific software. 3. There was a tax on bricks in England. From 1784 to 1850 you were taxed according to the number of bricks you used in a building. 4 In Egypt, in spite of the heavy loads that stone structures created, foundations were of a surprisingly improvised character, made of small blocks of poor quality stone. 5. Bricks were very popular as a building material from 1700 to 1900s. This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant than wood in the ever crowding cities, and cheap to produce 6. Apart from naturally occurring matenals, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. 7. The complexity of modem structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. 8. The design of a building begins with its future user or owner, who has in mind a perceived need for the structure, as well as a specific site and a general idea of its projected cost. 9. In addition to general knowledge of building science, the design 178I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей t e a m c o lle c ts s p e c ific d a ta re la te d t o th e p r o p o s e d b u ild in g s ite 10. M a d e f ro m c la y s , a n d e a s ie r t o u s e t h a n s to n e b e c a u s e o f th e ir siz e a n d s ta n d a r d iz a tio n , b ric k s m a d e p o s s ib le t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e a r c h e s , v a u lts , a n d d o m e s t h a t w e re p o p u l a r in E u r o p e fr o m th e R o m a n e r a o n . 12. S u p p ly th e m issin g p r e p o sitio n s o f tw o o r m o r e w o rd s from e x e r c is e 10 . O n e o r m o re a n sw e r s m a y b e c o r r e c t. 1. I n t h e 1 5 th c e n tu r y b ric k r e m a in e d q u ite e x p e n s iv e t h e c o s t o f th e fu e l n e e d e d to fire it, a n d it w a s u s e d m a in ly w h e re th e r e w a s n o re a d ily a v a ila b le s to n e . 2. T h e c o m p a n y h a s h a d a s u c c e s s fu l y e a r, th e im p r o v e m e n t in e x p o r t sa le s. 3. T h e s e m a p p in g s a re a b s tr a c tio n s th a t a re in tr o d u c e d d is c u s s th e p ro c e s s o f d e s ig n a n d d e p lo y m e n t o f C A A D sy ste m s. 4. T h e r e is a s e p a r a te g a r d e n e a c h h o u s e . 5. N o w , t h e fin a n c ia l c u t- b a c k s , th e p la n ts h a v e b e e n c lo s e d . 6. T h e firs t p r o g r a m w a s in s ta lle d in t h e 1 9 6 0 ’s to h e lp a r c h ite c ts sa v e tim e d ra w in g t h e i r b lu e p r in ts . 7. t h e f a c t t h a t all th e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f th e g r o u p a r e g o in g , I t h i n k y o u s h o u ld g o to o . 8. H e c o u l d n ’t g o t o w o r k in A f r ic a 9. h is p o o r h e a lth . c o n s tr u c tio n e q u i p m e n t , f o re ig n o r d e rs sa w a n e t d e c re a s e b y 19 p e r c e n t. 10. A rc h ite c ts d ir e c t th e w o rk o f e n g in e e rs , m any o t h e r c o n s u lta n ts m s u c h s p e c ia liz e d a re a s a s lig h tin g , a c o u s tic s , a n d v e rtic a l t r a n s p o r ta tio n . SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. W h a t d o y o u k n ow a b o u t str u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g ? R ea d th e sta te m e n ts given b e lo w and s a y if th e y a r e tr u e o r fa lse . I f th e sta te m e n ts a r e n o t tr u e , m a k e th e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c tio n s . a ) S tr u c tu r a l e n g i n e e n n g c a n o n ly b e s tu d ie d o n its o w n rig h t. b ) S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e rs a re in v o lv e d in th e d e s ig n o f s tr u c tu re s . UNIT8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 179 c ) S t r u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g d e s ig n u s e s a la rg e n u m b e r o f b a s ic s t r u c tu r a l e le m e n ts . d ) P y r a m id s a r e re g a r d e d a s th e m o s t c o m m o n m a jo r s tr u c tu r e s b e c a u s e t h e i r f o r m s a re s ta b le a n d sc a le d . e ) T h e th e o r y o f stru c tu re s ex iste d a n d w as w id e ly u s e d th r o u g h o u t a n c ie n t a n d m e d ie v a l h isto ry . f) T h e p r o f e s s io n o f a s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r t o o k s h a p e i n th e R e n a is s a n c e . g ) T h e a r c h ite c t a n d t h e s tr u c tu r a l e n g i n e e r w e re d if f e r e n t p r o f e s s io n s b e f o r e t h e in d u s tr ia l r e v o lu tio n . h ) A s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r is c o n s id e r e d to b e fu lly q u a lif ie d a f te r c o m p le tin g a t h r e e - y e a r c o u r s e o f s tu d y a t c o lle g e o r u n iv e r s ity . 14 . R e a d T e x t 8 A “ E n g in e e r in g fo r B u ild in g s” an d sa y i f y o u a r e rig h t o r w r o n g . D is c u s s y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. • TEXT 8A Engineering fo r B u ild in g s S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g is a f ie ld o f e n g in e e r in g d e a lin g w ith th e a n a ly s is a n d d e s ig n o f s t r u c t u r e s t h a t s u p p o r t o r re s is t lo a d s . S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e n n g is u s u a lly c o n s id e r e d a s p e c ia lty w ith in civ il e n g in e e r in g , b u t it c a n a ls o b e s tu d ie d in its o w n rig h t. S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r s a r e m o s t c o m m o n ly in v o lv e d i n th e d e s ig n o f b u ild in g s a n d la rg e n o n b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e s b u t th e y c a n a ls o b e i n v o lv e d in t h e d e s ig n o f m a c h in e r y , m e d ic a l e q u i p m e n t , v e h ic le s o r a n y ite m w h e r e s t r u c tu r a l in te g r ity a ff e c ts f u n c t i o n o r s a f e ty o f t h e ite m . S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r s m u s t e n s u r e t h e i r d e s ig n s satisfy g iv e n d e s ig n c rite ria , p r e d ic a te d o n sa fe ty ( e g . s tr u c tu r e s m u s t n o t c o lla p s e w i t h o u t d u e w a r n in g ) o r s e r v ic e a b ility a n d p e r f o r m a n c e ( e g . b u ild in g s w a y m u s t n o t c a u s e d is c o m f o r t to th e o c c u p a n ts ) . S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g t h e o r y is b a s e d u p o n p h y s ic a l la w s a n d e m p ir ic a l k n o w le d g e o f t h e s tr u c t u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f d if f e r e n t l a n d s c a p e s a n d m a te r ia ls . S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g d e s ig n u tilis e s a r e la tiv e ly s m a ll n u m b e r o f b a s ic s t r u c tu r a l e le m e n ts to b u ild u p 180 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей s tr u c tu r a l s y s te m s t h a t c a n b e v e ry c o m p le x . S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e rs a re re s p o n s ib le f o r m a k in g c r e a tiv e a n d e f fic ie n t u s e o f fu n d s , s tru c tu ra l e le m e n ts a n d m a te n a ls t o a c h ie v e th e s e g o als. S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g h a s e x is te d s in c e h u m a n s first s ta r te d to c o n s tr u c t t h e i r o w n s t ru c tu re s . It d a te s b a c k t o a t le a s t 2 7 0 0 B C w h e n th e s te p p y r a m id f o r P h a r a o h D jo s e r w a s b u ilt b y I m h o te p , th e firs t e n g in e e r m h is to ry k n o w n b y n a m e . P y ra m id s w e re th e m o s t c o m m o n m a jo r stru c tu re s b u ilt b y a n c ie n t civ ilizatio n s b e c a u s e t h e s tr u c tu r a l f o rm o f a p y r a m id is i n h e r e n tly s ta b le a n d c a n b e a lm o s t in fin ite ly s c a le d (a s o p p o s e d to m o s t o t h e r s tr u c tu r a l fo rm s w h ic h c a n n o t b e lin e a rly in c re a s e d in size in p r o p o r tio n to in c re a s e d lo ad s). T h ro u g h o u t a n c ie n t an d m edieval h isto ry m o st a rc h ite c tu ra l d esig n a n d c o n s tru c tio n w ere e a r n e d o u t b y a rtis a n s , s u c h a s s to n e m a s o n s a n d c a rp e n te r s , ris in g to th e ro le o f m a s te r b u ild e r. N o th e o r y o f s tru c tu re s e x is te d , a n d th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h o w s tru c tu re s s to o d u p w as e x tr e m e ly lim ite d a n d b a s e d a lm o s t e n t ir e ly o n e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e o f “ w h a t h a d w o rk e d b e f o r e ” . K n o w le d g e w a s r e ta in e d b y g u ild s a n d s e l d o m s u p p l a n t e d b y a d v a n c e s . S t r u c t u r e s w e re re p e titiv e , a n d in c re a s e s m s c a le w e re in c r e m e n ta l. No re c o r d e x is ts o f th e firs t c a lc u la tio n s o f th e s tre n g th o f s tru c tu ra l m e m b e rs o r th e b e h a v io u r o f s tru c tu ra l m a te ria l, b u t th e p ro fe s s io n o f a s t r u c tu r a l e n g in e e r o n ly re a lly to o k s h a p e w ith th e in d u s tria l r e v o lu tio n a n d th e r e - i n v e n t i o n o f c o n c r e t e . T h e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s u n d e rly in g s tru c tu ra l e n g in e e n n g b e g a n t o b e u n d e rs to o d in th e R e n a is s a n c e a n d have b een d e v e lo p in g e v e r s in c e . S tr u c tu r a l e n g i n e e n n g b e c a m e a m o re d e fin e d p ro fe s s io n w ith th e em e rg e n c e p ro fe s s io n o f th e a rc h ite c tu re as d is tin c t fro m th e UNIT 8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 181 e n g in e e n n g p r o f e s s io n d u n n g t h e in d u s tr ia l r e v o lu tio n in t h e la te 1 9 th c e n tu r y . U n t i l th e n , t h e a r c h i t e c t a n d th e s t r u c tu r a l e n g in e e r w e r e o f te n o n e a n d th e s a m e — t h e m a s te r b u ild e r . O n ly w ith t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s tr u c tu r a l t h e o n e s t h a t e m e r g e d d u n n g th e 1 9 th a n d 2 0 th c e n t u n e s t h e p r o f e s s io n a l s tr u c tu r a l e n g i n e e r c a m e in to e x is te n c e . T h e r o le o f a s tr u c tu r a l e n g i n e e r to d a y in v o lv e s a s ig n if ic a n t u n d e r s ta n d in g o f b o th s ta tic a n d d y n a m ic lo a d in g , a n d th e s tr u c tu r e s t h a t a re av ailab le to resist th e m . T h e c o m p le x ity o f m o d e m s tr u c tu r e s o f t e n r e q u ir e s a g r e a t d e a l o f c r e a tiv ity f r o m t h e e n g in e e r i n o r d e r to e n s u re th e s tru c tu re s s u p p o r t a n d resist th e lo a d s th e y a r e s u b je c te d to . A s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r w ill t y p ic a lly h a v e a f o u r o r fiv e y e a r u n d e r g r a d u a te d e g r e e f o llo w e d b y a m i n i m u m o f t h r e e y e a r s o f p ro f e s s io n a l p r a c tic e b e f o r e b e in g c o n s id e r e d fu lly q u a lifie d S tru c tu ra l e n g in e e rs a re lic e n se d o r a c c r e d ite d b y d iffe re n t le a r n e d s o c ie tie s a n d re g u la to r y b o d ie s a r o u n d t h e w o r ld ( f o r e x a m p le , th e I n s t i t u t i o n o f S t r u c tu r a l E n g in e e r s in t h e U K ) . 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 8 A t h e p a r a g r a p h s s a y in g a b o u t th e h isto r y o f s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g an d t r a n s la te th e m in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p a r a g r a p h s 8 an d 9 o f T e x t 8 A . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s . a) they c a n a ls o b e in v o lv e d in t h e d e s ig n o f m a c h in e r y W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n they refer to? b ) s tr u c t u r a l e l e m e n ts a n d m a te r ia ls t o a c h ie v e these g o a ls. W h a t d o e s th e d e m o n s tr a tiv e p r o n o u n these r e f e r to ? c ) f irs t s t a r t e d t o c o n s t r u c t their o w n s t r u c tu r e s . W h a t d o e s t h e p r o n o u n their r e f e r to ? d ) t h e s t r u c tu r e s t h a t a r e a v a ila b le to r e s is t W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n them r e f e r to ? them. 182 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей е) a n d r e s is t t h e lo a d s W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n they a r e s u b je c te d they r e f e r to ? to . 0 2 7 0 0 ; 19 ( tw ic e ) ; 2 0 W h a t d o th e s e n u m b e r s r e f e r t o ? 1 8 . Fin d in T e x t 8 A so m e k e y w ord s an d e x p r e s s io n s t o sp e a k ab o u t str u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g . R e te ll th e T e x t in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 8 B “ B u ild in g D s ig n ” an d tr y to u n d e r sta n d w h a t it is ab o u t an d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is k n o w n t o y o u . • Text 8B B u ildin g Design T h e d e s ig n o f a b u ild in g b e g in s w ith its f u tu r e u s e r o r o w n e r , w h o h a s in m in d a p e r c e iv e d n e e d f o r t h e s tr u c tu r e , a s w e ll a s a s p e c if ic s ite a n d a g e n e r a l id e a o f its p r o je c te d c o s t. T h e u s e r o r c lie n t b rin g s th e s e fa c ts t o a te a m o f d e sig n p ro fe s s io n a ls c o m p o s e d o f a r c h ite c ts a n d e n g in e e r s , w h o c a n d e v e lo p f r o m t h e m a se t o f c o n s tr u c tio n d o c u m e n ts t h a t d e f in e th e p r o p o s e d b u ild in g e x a c tly a n d f r o m w h ic h it c a n b e c o n s tr u c te d . B u ild in g d e sig n p ro fe ssio n a ls in c lu d e th o s e lic e n s e d b y th e sta te , s u c h as a rc h ite c ts a n d s tru c tu ra l, m e c h a n ic a l, a n d e le c tn c a l e n g in e e r s , w h o m u s t f o r m a lly c e r tif y t h a t th e b u ild in g t h e y d e s ig n w ill c o n f o r m to a ll g o v e r n m e n ta l c o d e s a n d re g u la tio n s . A r c h ite c ts a r e th e p r im a r y d e sig n p ro fe s s io n a ls ; th e y o r c h e s tr a te a n d d ir e c t th e w o r k o f e n g in e e r s a s w e ll a s m a n y o t h e r c o n s u lta n ts i n s u c h s p e c ia liz e d a r e a s a s lig h tin g , a c o u s tic s , a n d v e r tic a l tr a n s p o r ta tio n . T h e d e s ig n p r o f e s s io n a ls d r a w u p o n a n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s in p r e p a r in g t h e i r d e sig n . T h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l o f th e s e is b u ild in g s c ie n c e , w h ic h h a s b e e n g r a d u a lly b u ilt u p o v e r t h e p a s t 3 0 0 y e a rs. T h is in c lu d e s t h e p a r ts o f p h y s ic a l th e o r y t h a t r e la te to b u ild in g , s u c h a s th e e la s tic th e o r y o f s t r u c tu r e s a n d t h e o r ie s o f lig h t, e le c tr ic ity , a n d f lu id flo w . T h e r e is a ls o a la rg e c o m p e n d i u m o f UNIT 8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 183 in fo rm a tio n o n th e sp e c ific p ro p e rtie s o f b u ild in g m a te n a ls t h a t c a n b e a p p lie d in m a th e m a t i c a l m o d e ls t o re lia b ly p r o je c t b u ild in g p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e r e is a ls o a la rg e b o d y o f d a t a o n c r ite r ia fo r h u m a n c o m f o r t in s u c h m a tte r s a s th e r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t , lig h tin g le v e ls, a n d s o u n d le v e ls t h a t in f lu e n c e a b u ild in g d e s ig n . I n a d d itio n t o g e n e ra l k n o w le d g e o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e , th e d e s ig n t e a m c o lle c ts s p e c ific d a ta re la te d t o th e p r o p o s e d b u ild in g site . T h e s e in c lu d e to p o g r a p h ic a n d b o u n d a r y s u rv e y s , in v e s tig a tio n s o f su b s o il c o n d itio n s fo r f o u n d a tio n a n d w a te r - e x c lu s io n d e s ig n , a n d c lim a te d a ta a n d o t h e r lo c a l e le m e n ts . C o n c u rre n tly w ith th e c o lle c tio n o f th e site d a ta , th e d esig n te a m w o rk s w ith t h e c li e n t t o b e t t e r d e fin e t h e o f t e n v a g u e n o tio n s o f b u ild in g f u n c t i o n in to m o r e p re c is e a n d c o n c r e t e te r m s . T h e s e d e fin itio n s a re s u m m a r iz e d i n a b u ild in g s p a c e p r o g r a m m e , w h ic h g iv e s a d e ta ile d w r itte n d e s c r ip tio n o f e a c h r e q u ire d s p a c e in te rm s o f f lo o r a re a , e q u i p m e n t , a n d f u n c tio n a l p e r f o r m a n c e c rite r ia . T h is d o c u m e n t fo rm s a n a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e c lie n t a n d th e d esig n t e a m a s t o e x p e c te d b u ild in g s iz e a n d p e rf o r m a n c e . T h e p ro c e s s b y w h ic h b u ild in g sc ie n c e , s ite d a ta , a n d th e b u ild in g s p a c e p r o g r a m a r e u s e d b y t h e d e s ig n t e a m is t h e a r t o f b u ild in g d e s ig n . It is a c o m p le x p r o c e s s in v o lv in g th e s e l e c t i o n o f s t a n d a r d b u ild in g s y s te m s , a n d t h e i r a d a p t a t i o n a n d in te g r a tio n t o p r o d u c e a b u ild in g t h a t m e e t s t h e c l i e n t ’s n e e d s w i t h i n t h e l i m ita tio n s o f g o v e r n m e n t r e g u la tio n s a n d m a r k e t s ta n d a r d s . T h e s e s y s te m s h a v e b e c o m e d iv id e d in to a n u m b e r o f c l e a r s e c to r s b y t h e b u ild in g ty p e f o r w h ic h t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d . T h e d e s ig n p r o c e s s in v o lv e s th e s e l e c t i o n o f s y s te m s f o r f o u n d a t i o n s , s t r u c t u r e , a t m o s p h e r e , e n c lo s u r e , s p a c e d iv is io n , e le c tr ic a l d i s t r ib u tio n , w a t e r su p p ly a n d d r a in a g e , a n d o t h e r b u ild in g fu n c tio n s . T h e s e s y s te m s a re m a d e fr o m a l im ite d r a n g e o f m a n u f a c t u r e d c o m p o n e n t s b u t p e r m i t a w id e ra n g e o f v a r ia tio n i n th e fin a l p r o d u c t. O n c e t h e s y s te m s a n d c o m p o n e n t s h a v e b e e n s e le c te d , th e d e s ig n t e a m p r e p a r e s a s e t o f c o n tra c t d o c u m e n ts c o n s is tin g o f a w n tte n te x t a n d c o n v e n tio n a liz e d d ra w in g s t o d e s c rib e c o m p le te ly t h e d e s ire d b u ild in g c o n f ig u r a tio n in te r m s o f t h e s p e c ifie d b u ild in g s y s te m s a n d t h e i r e x p e c te d 184[ Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей p e rf o r m a n c e W h e n th e c o n tr a c t d o c u m e n ts h a v e b e e n c o m p le te d , th e fin a l c o s ts o f th e b u ild in g c a n u s u a lly b e a c c u r a te ly e s tim a te d a n d th e c o n s tr u c tio n p ro c e s s c a n b e g in . 2 0 . Id e n tify th e to p ic o f e a c h p aragrap h o f T e x t 8 B . 2 1 . A n sw e r th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s. a ) W h a t d o e s th e d e s ig n o f a b u ild in g b e g in w ith ? b ) W h o d e v e lo p s c o n s tr u c tio n d o c u m e n ts ? c) W h a t a r e d e s ig n p r o f e s s io n a ls ’ re sp o n s ib ilitie s ? d ) W h a t s o u r c e s d o d e s ig n p r o f e s s io n a ls u se to p r e p a r e t h e i r d e sig n ? e ) W h a t s ite i n f o r m a tio n is r e q u ir e d f o r d e s ig n e n g in e e r s ? f) W h a t is a b u ild in g s p a c e p r o g r a m m e ? g) W h a t is th e d e f in itio n o f th e a r t o f b u ild in g d e sig n ? h) W h a t d o e s th e d e sig n p r o c e s s in v o lv e ? 2 2 . R e a d T e x t 8 C “ C o m p u te r -A id e d A r c h ite c tu r a l D e s ig n ” an d a n s w e r t h e q u e s t io n s . D i s c u s s y o u r a n s w e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a ) W h a t s o ftw a re p r o g r a m s a re u s e d in th e b u ild in g d e sig n ? b ) W h a t is C A A D ? c) W h y w a s C A A D d e v e lo p e d a s a d is tin c t c la ss o f s o ftw a re ? d ) W h a t is th e d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n C A D a n d C A A D 9 e ) W h a t s y ste m s d o e s C A A D h av e? f) W h a t m a k e s it e a s y to p e r f o r m a r i t h m e t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s e ffectively? g) W h a t is th e tw o -w a y m a p p in g o f a c tiv itie s? h) D o e s t h e d e sig n p r o c e s s c o v e r th e c o m p le te life c y c le o f a b u ild in g ? i) j) W h a t is m e a n t b y a d e s ig n c o n tin u u m ? H o w is a g r a p h ic a l a p p r o a c h u s e d in t h e d e s ig n p ro c e s s ? UNIT 8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 185 • TEXT 8C Com puter-AIDED A rch ite c tu ra l Design C o m p u te r-a id e d a r c h ite c tu ra l d e sig n (C A A D ) so ftw a re p ro g ra m s a re th e re p o sito ry o f a c c u ra te a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e re c o rd s o f b u ild in g s a n d a re u s e d b y a r c h ite c ts a n d c iv il e n g in e e rs . T h e first p r o g r a m w a s in s ta lle d in t h e 1 9 6 0 ’s t o h e lp a r c h i t e c t s sav e tim e in s te a d o f d ra w in g th e i r b lu e p n n ts . C o m p u te r - a id e d d e sig n a lso k n o w n a s C A D w a s o rig in a lly th e ty p e o f p ro g ra m th a t a r c h ite c ts u s e d , b u t s in c e C A D c o u l d n ’t o f f e r a ll t h e to o ls t h a t a r c h ite c ts n e e d e d t o c o m p le te a p r o je c t, C A A D d e v e lo p e d a s a d is t i n c t c la s s o f so ftw a re . A ll C A D a n d C A A D s y s te m s e m p lo y a d a ta b a s e w ith g e o m e tr ic a n d o t h e r p r o p e r tie s o f o b je c ts ; th e y a ll h a v e s o m e k in d o f g ra p h ic u s e r i n te r f a c e t o m a n i p u l a t e a v is u a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n r a t h e r t h a n th e d a ta b a s e ; a n d th e y a re all m o re o r less c o n c e r n e d w ith a sse m b lin g d e sig n s f ro m s ta n d a r d a n d n o n - s ta n d a r d p ie c e s. C u rre n tly , t h e m a in d is tin c tio n w h ic h c a u s e s o n e t o s p e a k o f C A A D r a t h e r t h a n C A D lie s in t h e d o m a i n k n o w le d g e ( a r c h i t e c t u r e - s p e c i f i c o b j e c t s , te c h n iq u e s , d a ta , a n d p ro c e s s s u p p o r t) e m b e d d e d in th e s y s te m . A C A A D s y s te m d iffe rs f r o m o t h e r C A D s y s te m s in tw o re s p e c ts - I t h a s a n e x p lic it o b je c t d a ta b a s e o f b u ild in g p a r t s a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n k n o w le d g e . - I t e x p lic itly s u p p o rts th e c re a tio n o f a r c h ite c tu r a l o b je c ts . In a m o re g e n e r a l s e n s e , C A A D a ls o re fe rs to t h e u se o f a n y c o m p u t a t i o n a l te c h n i q u e in t h e fie ld o f a r c h ite c tu r a l d e s ig n . F o r e x a m p le , s o ftw a re w h ic h is sp e c ific a lly d e v e lo p e d fo r th e c o m p u t e r a n i m a t i o n i n d u s tr y (e .g . M a y a a n d 3 D S tu d io M a x ) is a ls o u s e d in a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s ig n . C A A D h a s tw o ty p e s o f s tru c tu re s m its p ro g ra m . T h e first sy ste m is s u rfa c e s tr u c tu r e w h ic h p ro v id e s a g ra p h ic s m e d i u m t o r e p r e s e n t th r e e d i m e n s io n a l o b je c ts u s in g tw o d im e n s io n a l re p r e s e n ta tio n s T h e s e c o n d s y ste m is d e e p s tru c tu re w h ic h m e a n s t h a t t h e o p e ra tio n s p e r f o r m e d b y t h e c o m p u t e r h a v e n a tu r a l lim ita tio n s . C o m p u t e r h a rd w a re a n d m a c h in e la n g u a g e s th a t a re s u p p o rte d b y th e s e m a k e it e a sy to p e r f o r m a n t h m e t i c a l o p e ra tio n s q u ic k ly a n d a c c u ra te ly . Здесь должны быть стр 186 и 187 188[ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей b) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 8 B o f th e T e x t . L o o k up t h e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in t h e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t a b ou t a s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r ’s r e sp o n sib ilitie s an d d u tie s. UNIT 9 SURVEYING Ш SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1 . R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e t h e a c t iv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ S u r v e y in g T e c h n iq u e s ” a n d tr a n s la te t h e g iv e n s e n t e n c e s . 1. a c c o m p lish [ a 'k o m p l i j ] v — с о в е р ш а т ь , в ы п о л н я т ь , д о ­ сти гать, д о во д и т ь д о к о н ц а , зав ер ш ат ь a c c o m p lish a n o b je c tiv e [ a b 'c fc e k tiv ] — д о с т и ч ь ц е л и T h e y m a n a g e d to accomplish t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c t W e accomplish t h i s objective t h r o u g h a b r o a d r a n g e o f p r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t a n d c o n s tr u c tio n se rv ic e s. 2. g a th e r ['д э е Э э ] in fo r m a tio n — с о б и р а т ь и н ф о р м а ц и ю The com pany gathered s o m e information o n t h e b u i l d i n g c o n s tr u c tio n m a rk e t. 3. c a d a stra l su rvey [ k a 'd a s s t r s l 's a :v e i] — к а д а с т р о в а я с ъ е м к а c o n str u c tio n la y o u t su rv ey — р а з б и в к а с т р о й п л о щ а д к и lan d su r v e y — п о л е в а я с ъ е м к а , г е о д е з и ч е с к а я с ъ е м к а A cadastral survey in v o lv e s t h e m a p p in g , tr a c i n g a n d r e c o r d in g Constructionlayout surveys o f p r iv a te a n d p u b lic la n d re s o u r c e s . s u p e r im p o s e t h e in f o r m a tio n s h o w n o n p l a n s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite s o th e v a r io u s t r a d e s c a n c o n s t r u c t b u ild in g s , ro a d s a n d u tility 190 I Английский язы к для студентов строительных специальностей sy ste m s. T h e c o u r s e a im s t o p r o d u c e g r a d u a te s w ith s k ills in land survey a n d p r e p a r e t h e m f o r c a re e rs in t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f p ro p e rty . 4 . e le v a te [ 'e lr v e it] v — п о д н и м а т ь , в о з в ы ш а т ь e le v a tio n [ ,e l i 'v e i j n ] n — вы сотная отм етка, вертикаль­ н а я п р о е к ц и я , п р о ф и л ь , ф а с а д , в и д с б о к у (н а ч е р теж е) Y o u c a n g a in a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h o w w e a r e w o r k in g to elevate th e su rv e y in g p ro fe ssio n . A to p o g r a p h ic su rv e y lo c a te s n a tu r a l a n d m a n - m a d e f e a tu r e s w ith elevations. 5. e x e c u t e [ 'e k s ik ju :t] n — вы полнять, осущ ествлять e x e c u tio n [ ,e k s i'k ju :J n ] — п р о и з в о д с т в о , в ы п о л н е н и е We execute all k in d s o f s u rv e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n n in g is a f u n d a m e n ta l a n d c h a lle n g in g a c tiv ity in th e m a n a g e m e n t a n d execution o f c o n s tr u c tio n p ro je c ts . 6. b o u n d a r y [ Ъ а и п б л п ] n — гр ан и ц а, м еж а, л и н и я р аз­ дела b ou n d ary c o r n e r — з е м л е м е р н ы й з н а к (у г о л ) г р а н и ц ы p ro p erty b ou n d ary [ 'p r o p a t i ] — г р а н и ц а в л а д е н и я e sta b lish b o u n d a r ie s — у с т а н а в л и в а т ь ( о п р е д е л я т ь ) г р а ­ ницы boundary. A boundary comer boundary lin e s . S u r v e y m a p s A ra ilw a y lin e ru n s a lo n g t h e e a s te r n is t h e p o i n t o f in te r s e c tio n o f tw o sh o w le g a l property boundaries a n d o w n e r s h ip o f p h y s ic a l fe a tu re s . H o w d o la n d s u rv e y o rs establish boundaries? 7 . m e a su r in g ta p e (ta p e m e a su r e ) [ ' т е з э п д 't e i p ] — р у л е т ­ к а, и зм е р и те л ь н а я (м ер н ая) л е н т а A c a r p e n t e r s h o u ld u se 8 . in str u m e n t a measuring tape. n — инструм ент; п р и б о р , ап п арат m ea su rin g in stru m en t — и з м е р и т е л ь н ы й и н с т р у м е н т UNIT 9. SURVEYING The instrument an e l e c tr ic ia n 191 u s e s t o c h e c k t h a t a p o w e r c i r c u it is w o r k in g p r o p e r ly is a v o ltm e te r . A ll measuring instruments a re su b je c t t o v a ry in g d e g re e s o f e r r o r s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t u n c e r ta in ty . 9. n adj v — le v e l горизонт, уровен ь, отм етка; ни вели р, у р о в е н ь (и н с т р у м е н т ); г о р и з о н т а л ь н ы й ; н и в е л и р о в а т ь , вы равн ивать le v e llin g i n s tr u m e n t — н и в е л и р ; в а т е р п а с A w id e u s e o f s c ie n tif ic i n v e n tio n s h a s r a is e d b u ild in g t o a n e w h ig h e r level. ground level. T h e b u ild in g h a s o n e s to r e y w h ic h is r a is e d a b o v e level to c h e c k v e r tic a l a n d level. Y o u s h o u ld b u ild on levelled o ff t h e w e t c o n c r e t e w i t h a A c a rp e n te r uses a s p in t h o r iz o n ta l w o r k . T h e s ite n e e d s t o b e the level, n o t o n th e s lo p e . S h e p ie c e o f w o o d . 10. c a l i b r a t e [ 'k a e lib r e it] v — к а л и б р о в а т ь , г р а д у и р о в а т ь ; п р о в е р я т ь , в ы в е р я т ь ; ( г е о д .) к о м п а р и р о в а т ь calibrated th e w e ig h in g m a c h in e . H o w w ill y o u a llo w to calibrate t h e t h e r m o m e t e r t o h is d e s ir e d se ttin g s ? Не user 11. p la n e n— th e плоскость, уровен ь, гори зон т p la n e o f r e f e r e n c e — к о о р д и н а т н а я п л о с к о с т ь C e m e n t i n g m a te r ia ls a r e u s u a lly u s e d f o r j o i n i n g d if f e r e n t planes. A plane o f reference a c ts a s a g u id e to t h e lo c a t i o n o f o t h e r p la n e s . 12. th e o d o lite [Ѳ і'D d a la it] A theodelite is теодолит u s e d b y s u r v e y o r s f o r m e a s u r in g a n g le s . 13. a r e a [ 'е э п э ] The area o f a n— n— участок, р а й о н , площ адь, тер р и то р и я s u r f a c e in t h e r o o m is m e a s u r e d in s q u a r e m e tr e s . 192 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 14. im p ro v e [ш Г р г ш ѵ ] ѵ — у л у ч ш а т ь , с о в е р ш е н с т в о в а т ь im p rovem en t п — улучш ен ие, у соверш енствование C o n s t r u c t i o n b u s in e s s p r o s p e c ts have improved e n o r m o u s ly . Y o u r w o r k s h o w s c o n s id e r a b le improvement 15. r e so lu tio n [ ,r e z 3 'l u : J n ] n — р а з р е ш а ю щ а я с п о с о б н о с т ь , р а зр еш ен и е; р азл о ж ен и е (н а с о став л я ю щ и е) an gu lar re so lu tio n — у г л о в а я р а з р е ш а ю щ а я с п о с о б н о с т ь T h e y u s e d a s p e c ia l m e t h o d f o r i m p r o v in g resolution o f t h e t h e o d o lite . Angular resolution is t h e m i n i m u m a n g u la r s e p a r a tio n a t w h ic h tw o e q u a l ta ig e ts c a n b e s e p a r a te d w h e n a t th e sa m e ra n g e . 16. m easu rin g rod — п р о м е р н а я р е й к а T h e r e a re v a rio u s ty p e s o f measuring rods d e s ig n e d f o r id e n tify in g th e le n g th a n d w id th o f s p e c ific o b je c ts . 17. p e g n — кол, колы ш ек T h e e w e r e f o u r pegs s tu c k in t h e g r o u n d . 18. p la t [p laet] — ( амер.) п л а н и л и с ъ е м к а в г о р и з о н т а л ь н о й п р о ек ц и и , карта C ity , to w n o r v illa g e s tr e e ts a n d alle y s. 19. a x is plats s h o w s u b d iv is io n s in t o b lo c k s w ith (pi. a x e s ) [ 'a e k s is ] ( [ 'a e k s i:z ] ) n — о с ь adj — о с е в о й , п р о д о л ь н ы й a x ia l [ 'a e k s ia l] T h e lo n g axis o f th e b u ild in g is o r i e n t e d e a s t- w e s t. F o r a x ia l lo a d in g th e e ffe c t o f th e m e a n stre s s is s h o w n . 2 0 . eq u ip [ f k w i p ] v — о б о р у д о в а т ь , о с н а щ а т ь eq u ip m en t [ I 'k w ip m a n t] n — оборудование, о снащ ени е T h e s c h o o l b u ild in g is equipped w ith a ir - c o n d itio n in g . S p e e d in g u p c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e p o s s ib le th r o u g h u s in g a ll k in d s o f b u ild in g equipment. UNIT 9. SURVEYING 193 2 . R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir tr a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p a rt o f sp e e c h . n, tr ig o n o m e tr y n, le g a l adj, c a d a s tr a l adj, r e g is te r n, r e d u c e v, c o m p a s s n, b a r o m e t e r n, in d i c a t i o n n, d iffe re n tia l n, o b je c t n, p riv a te adj, lo c a te v, v e rify v, c o r r e c t adj, a l u m i n u m n, o r i e n t a t e v, c o r r e s p o n d v, c o p y n v, in te r p r e ta tio n n, m e te o r o lo g y n, p e r p e n d i c u l a r adj, le n s e n, p r is m n, a u t o m a tic a lly adv. D i s ta n c e v, a c c u m u l a t i o n 3 . M a tc h th e w o rd s w ith th e d e fin itio n s b e lo w . a) b ) le v e l c) peg d ) e le v a tio n r e s o lu tio n e ) p la n e f) a x is g ) th e o d o lite h ) m e a s u n n g ro d i) m e a s u r in g ta p e j) c a d a s tra l su rv e y 1. a c e n tr e lin e t o w h ic h p a r t s o f a s tr u c tu r e m a y b e r e f e r r e d 2 . a fle x ib le f o r m o f a r u l e r 3. a n a r c h i t e c t ’s d ra w in g o f o n e s id e o f a b u ild in g 4 . th e m e a n s b y w h ic h l a n d b o u n d a rie s a re e s t a b lis h e d /r e lo c a te d 5. th e p o w e r o f a n in s t r u m e n t t o g iv e a c l e a r p ic t u r e o f th in g s 6. a n i n s tr u m e n t h a v in g a s e q u e n c e o f m a rk s a t re g u la r in te rv a ls 7. a s h o r t p ie c e o f w o o d o r m e ta l u s e d t o m a r k s o m e th in g 8 . a n in s t r u m e n t u s e d f o r m e a s u n n g a n g le s 9 . a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r s h o w in g w h e th e r a s u r f a c e is h o n z o n t a l 10. a fla t s u rfa c e 4. M a tc h th e fo llo w in g E n g lish w ord c o m b in a tio n s w ith th e R u ssia n e q u iv a le n ts. 1. p la n e o f r e f e r e n c e а. р а з б и в к а с т р о й п л о щ а д к и 2 . e x e c u te l a n d s u rv e y b. зем л е м е р н ы й з н а к гр а н и ц ы 3. e s ta b lis h b o u n d a r ie s c . установить о борудование 7 Зак 312 194 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 4. c o n s tr u c tio n la y o u t s u rv e y d. к о о р д и н а т н а я п л о с к о с т ь 5. g a t h e r in fo r m a tio n e. у гл о в о е р а зр е ш е н и е 6 a c c o m p lis h a n o b je c tiv e f. п о д н я т ь п р о ф е с с и ю 7 g. с о б и р а т ь и н ф о р м а ц и ю in s ta ll e q u i p m e n t 8 a n g u la r r e s o lu tio n h. в ы п о л н я т ь п о л ев у ю съ ем к у 9. b o u n d a r y c o m e r i. д о с т и ч ь ц е л и 10. e le v a te a p ro fe s s io n j. у с т а н а в л и в а т ь г р а н и ц ы 5. R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . P a y a tte n tio n to th e m ea n in g o f th e w ord s an d w ord c o m b in a tio n s g iv e n b e lo w . I. a) a re a — участо к, р а й о н ; п л о щ а д ь b) re s id e n tia l ( h o u s in g ) a r e a — ж и л о й р а й о н c ) b e a rin g a re a — п л о щ а д ь о п о р ы , н е с у щ а я п о в е р х н о с т ь d ) a c ro s s -s e c tio n ( a l) a r e a — п л о щ а д ь п о п е р е ч н о г о сечения I. R e s is ta n c e is p ro v id e d b y tra n s f e r r in g t h e t h r u s t f o r c e t o th e soil th ro u g h th e la rg e r b e a n n g a re a o f th e b lo c k s u c h t h a t t h e re s u lta n t p re s s u re a g a in s t th e so il d o e s n o t e x c e e d t h e h o r iz o n ta l b e a rin g s tr e n g th o f t h e so il. 2. It is a n ic e s t a r t e r h o m e b y a p a r k , th e le a st e x p e n s iv e h o u s e in a n e x p e n s iv e a re a , a n d re a lly fits a ll o f o u r r e q u ire m e n ts . 3. W h e n a p l a n e c u ts t h r o u g h a n o b je c t, a n a r e a is p ro je c te d o n t o t h e p la n e . A n y p la n e c a n b e u s e d to c u t th r o u g h th e su rfa c e , b u t w h e n th a t p la n e is p e rp e n d ic u la r t o a n a x is o f sy m m e try , it p r o j e c tio n is c a lle d a c r o s s - s e c tio n a l a re a . 4. S a fe d r iv in g m re s id e n tia l a re a s is im p o rta n t. 5. T h e g a r d e n is tw e lv e s q u a re m e tre s m a re a . 6. T h e a r e a is a ls o fa s t d e v e lo p in g a s a re c r e a tio n a l a n d r e tir e m e n t h o u s in g a r e a w i t h a la rg e n u m b e r o f fo re ig n e rs n o w liv in g in t h e a r e a p lu s h o u s in g d e v e lo p m e n ts t h a t h a v e b e e n im p le m e n te d b y lo c a l e n t r e p re n e u rs . I I . a ) i n s tr u m e n t — и н с т р у м е н т ; п р и б о р b) s u rv e y in g i n s tr u m e n t — г е о д е з и ч е с к и й и н с т р у м е н т UNIT 9 . SURVEYING 195 c ) m e a s u r in g i n s tr u m e n t — и з м е р и т е л ь н ы й и н с т р у м е н т d ) le v e llin g in s t r u m e n t — н и в е л и р , в а т е р п а с e) in str u m e n ta tio n — к о н т р о л ь н о - и з м е р и т е л ь н ы е п р и б о р ы 1. T h e n e w e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s m in s tr u m e n ta tio n a n d te s t e q u i p m e n t d e m a n d e v e n h ig h e r s p e e d s a n d n e w lev e ls o f p r e c is io n . 2 . T h is c o m p a n y m a n u f a c tu r e s , m a r k e ts , i m p o r ts a n d e x p o r ts a w id e r a n g e o f m e a s u n n g in s tr u m e n ts o f w o r ld - r e n o w n e d b r a n d s . 3. S u rv e y in g in s tr u m e n ts a r e u s e d f o r th e a c c u r a te m e a s u r e m e n t o f fe a tu r e s , o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a b s o lu te p o s itio n in g o f la rg e s c a le o b je c ts in e n g in e e r in g , c o n s t r u c t i o n , m a p p in g , i n d u s tr y , d e f e n s e a n d o t h e r a p p lic a tio n s . 4. T h e u se o f le v e llin g in s t r u m e n t s is e s s e n tia l to v ario u s p a r ts o f th e c o n s tru c tio n p ro c e ss, ra n g in g f ro m in v e stig a tin g th e o r ig in a l s ite t o lo c a tin g t h e b u ild in g o n t h e s ite , a n d e s ta b lis h in g g ra d e s a n d e le v a tio n s o f v a rio u s p a r ts o f th e s tr u c tu r e . 5. In s tr u m e n ts u s e d i n su rv e y in g o p e r a tio n s m e a s u r e v e r tic a l a n d h o r iz o n ta l a n g le s , a n d d is ta n c e . 6. R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g w ord c o m b in a tio n s w h ich c o m e fr o m th e t e x t s o f t h e U n it. M in d t h e u s e o f n o u n s a s a ttr ib u te s in p r e p o sitio n . L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . T h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e p o s itio n , la n d m a p s a n d b o u n d a r ie s , d a t a a n a ly s is , p r o p e r t y b o u n d a r i e s , l a n d s u r v e y d a t a , s p a c e d e lin e a tio n , d a ta a c c u m u la tio n , c o n s tr u c tio n la y o u t su rv e y s, p r e c is io n m e a s u r e m e n ts , la n d o w n e r s h ip , a m e a s u n n g in s tr u m e n t le v e l, a i r p r e s s u r e , a s e a le v e l, a b o u n d a r y s u r v e y o r , b o u n d a r y c o m e r s , a n in s tr u m e n t lo c a t i o n , r e f e r e n c e m a r k s , a s t a n d a r d m a p g r id , a ta p e m e a s u r e , r o c k e t la u n c h t e c h n o lo g y , h o r iz o n ta l a x is e rro r, m e a s u re m e n t p ro c e d u re . 7* 196I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 7. S tu d y th e fo llo w in g p a tte r n s an d c o m p le te th e c h a r ts . R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e m in to R u ssia n . U s e y o u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . Pattern 30 I r e - + V e rb - > V e rb j T h e r e - p re fix m e a n s a re p e a te d a c tio n , a g a in in a n e w a n d a b e tte r w ay. Example, c o n s id e r — р а с с м а т р и в а т ь —> r e c o n s i d e r — п е р е ­ см атри вать Verb Verb d e fin e ---------------------------------- d is trib u te ---------------------------------- e x a m in e ---------------------------------- open ---------------------------------- re a d ---------------------------------- c o n s tru c t ---------------------------------- Pattern 31 u n -, in - , im -, i l - , ir - , d is - + A d je c tiv e /V e r b -> A d je c tiv e /V e rb T h e u n -, in -, im -, i l - , ir - , d is - p re fix e s h a v e a n e g a tiv e o r o p p o s ite m e a n in g . Example, a b le — с п о с о б н ы й —> u n a b le — н е с п о с о б н ы й a ) u n - is t h e m o s t c o m m o n , e .g . u n u s u a l; b ) in - is o f te n u s e d b e fo re w o rd s w ith a L a tin o r ig in , e .g . in v isib le ; UNIT9. SURVEYING c ) im - is u s e d b e f o r e s o m e w o r d s b e g in n in g w ith m or 197 p, e .g . r, e g. im p o lite ; d ) il- c a n b e u s e d b e f o r e /, e g. ille g a l; e ) i r - is u s e d b e f o r e a fe w w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w ith ir r e p la c e a b le ; f) d is - is u s e d b e f o r e s o m e a d je c tiv e s a n d v e rb s , e .g . d islik e . Adjective/Verb Adjective/Verb a c c e p ta b le _____________________ e m p lo y e d _____________________ a d e q u a te _____________________ fo rm a l _____________________ p e rfe c t _____________________ p r o b a b le _____________________ lite ra te _____________________ lo g ic a l _____________________ r e g u la r _____________________ r e s p o n s ib le _____________________ a g ree _____________________ b e lie v e _____________________ SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8. R e a d an d tr a n s la t e t h e s e n t e n c e s in t h e le ft an d rig h t co lu m n s in to R u ssia n . S a y w h e th e r th e a c tio n o f t h e o b je c t c la u s e p r e c e d e s, fo llo w s o r is sim u lta n e o u s w ith th e a c tio n o f th e p rin cip al c la u s e in t h e s e s e n t e n c e s . M in d th e s e q u e n c e o f te n s e s . 198[ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Example Н е said t h a t h e worked (was зал, ч т о работает н а з а в о д е . working) a t t h e p la n t. — О н ска­ Н е said t h a t h e had worked a t th e p la n t. — О н сказал, ч т о работал н а з а в о д е . Н е said th a t h e would work a t th e p la n t. — О н сказал, ч т о будет работать н а з а в о д е . 1 Не s a y s he n e e d s a holiday 2. She th i n k s that I w e n t home early. 3 They k n o w Peter w i ll s e e them later 4 My friend s a y s he c a n s p e a k French. 5. He s a y s he h a s s e e n that book on the teacher’s table. 6. He s a y s I a m w a s t i n g my time. 7. Jane s a y s she m a y arrive later. 8 He t h i n k s she h a s b e e n He s a i d that he n e e d e d a holiday She t h o u g h t that I h a d g o n e home early They k n e w Peter w o u l d s e e them later. My friend said he c o u l d s p e a k French He s a i d he h a d s e e n that book on the teacher’s table He s a i d I w a s w a s t i n g my time Jane s a i d she m i g h t a r r i v e later He t h o u g h t she h a d b e e n s le e p i n g s le e p in g . 9. Mary s a y s he s h o u l d go to the dentist’s 10. Sarah s a y s she m u s t finish the report__________________ Mary s a i d he s h o u l d go to the dentist’s. Sarah s a i d she m u s t ( h a d to ) finish the report____________ 9. R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s in to R u ssia n p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e r u le s o f th e s e q u e n c e o f t e n s e s . 1. H e r e p o r te d th a t th e b u ild in g in d u s try h a d d e v e lo p e d f r o m th e p r o c e s s o f u s in g n a tu r a l m a te r ia ls f o r b u ild in g s im p le s h e lte r s in e a r ly tim e s to t h e c o m p le x in d u s tr ia l p r o c e s s o f m o d e m t im e s 2. H e sa id t h a t m a n y o f th e m a te r ia ls u s e d th e n w e re m a d e m f a c to rie s a n d w e re o f te n p a r tly p u t t o g e t h e r b e f o r e th e y e v e n r e a c h e d th e b u ild in g s ite . 3. T h e la s t h a l f o f t h e 1 8 th c e n tu r y s a w th e u n f o ld in g _______________________________________________________ UNIT 9. SURVEYING I 199 o f a s e r ie s o f e v e n ts , p r im a r ily in E n g la n d , t h a t la te r h is to r ia n s w o u ld c a ll th e f irs t I n d u s tr ia l R e v o lu tio n , w h ic h w o u ld h a v e a p r o f o u n d i n f lu e n c e o n s o c ie ty a s a w h o le a s w e ll a s o n b u ild in g te c h n o lo g y . 4 . 1 to ld th e m t h a t w e w e re s ta r tin g a n e w c o m p a n y . 5. T h e a r tic le s a id t h a t la rg e b u ild in g s a s f a c to r ie s , w a r e h o u s e s , s c h o o ls , a n d h o s p ita ls h a d t o b e b u ilt o f m a te r ia ls t h a t w o u ld b e a r h e a v y w e ig h ts. 6 T h e te a c h e r e x p la in e d t o th e s tu d e n ts th a t a r c h e s , c a lle d tr u s s e s , h a d b e e n u s e d t o s p a n t h e a r e a t o b e le f t o p e n . 7. H e t o l d u s t h a t h i g h - r is e b u ild in g s c o u l d b e d e s c r ib e d a s s k y s c r a p e r s . 8. T h e s e c o n d i n d u s tr ia l a g e s a w t h e r e e m e ig e n c e o f c o n c r e t e in a n e w c o m p o s ite r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith s te e l, c r e a tin g a te c h n o lo g y th a t w o u ld a s s u m e a m a jo r ro le in b u ild in g c o n s tr u c tio n . 9. H e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e s p e c ia l t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n b u i ld in g s k y s c r a p e r s w h ic h w e r e d e s c r ib e d in a s e p a r a te le c tu r e . 10. T h e t e a c h e r to ld h is s tu d e n ts t h a t w e m ig h t p u t t h e b u ild in g s a r o u n d u s i n t o tw o g r o u p s : c o m m e r c ia l, in d u s tr ia l, o r in s titu tio n a l b u ild in g s , a n d s m a lle r , r e s id e n tia l o n e s . 10. P u t th e s e n t e n c e s in th e p a s t a s sh o w n . U s e t h e r u le s o f t h e s e q u e n c e o f te n s e s . Example H e says h e likes th is j o b . — H e said h e liked t h a t jo b . 1. I a m s u r e t h a t tr u s s e s m a y b e m a d e o f w o o d , m e ta l, o r r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te . 2. H e d o e s n ’t k n o w t h a t c o n c r e te is g e n e r a lly r e in f o r c e d u s in g s te e l r o d s o r b a r s . 3. H e sa y s t h e r e w e r e few s p e c ia lis t b u ild e r s in e a r ly tim e s . 4. H e sa y s s h e is e a r n in g a lo t o f m oney now . 5. I w a n t to a s k y o u w h o w ill w in m o n e y o n t h e lo tte r y . 6. H e sa y s h e h a s j u s t c h a n g e d h is j o b b e c a u s e h e w a n ts to e a r n m o r e m o n e y . 7. S h e w a n ts t o k n o w h o w m u c h m o n e y s h e m a y n e e d t o b u y th is c o tta g e . 8. S h e a s k s m e w h e n th e b u ild in g in d u s tr ie s o f m o s t W e s te rn c o u n tr ie s t o o k th e f o r m in w h ic h w e f in d t h e m t o d a y . 9 . S h e sa y s s h e p a id $ 2 ,0 0 0 f o r h e r c o m p u t e r , b u t it is n ’t w o r th v e ry m u c h n o w . 10. T h e a r tic le sa y s t h a t n e w b u ild in g m a te r ia ls w ill b e u s e d a n d e n g in e e r s w ill b e tr a i n e d t o u s e th e m . [ 200 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 11. C h a n g e t h e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s in t o in d ir e c t s p e e c h . a ) S ta te m e n ts Example B o b said, “Iknow th is r u le .” — B o b said that he knew th a t ru le. B o b said to us, “ / know t h is r u le .” — B o b told us t h a t he knew th a t ru le . 1. H e s a id , “ M y g r a n d f a th e r w a s a s u r v e y o r .” 2. M a r y s a id to u s, “T h e s im p le st m e th o d f o r m e a s u rin g h e ig h t is w ith a n a ltim e te r .” 3. T h e y s a id , “ T h is jo b w ill b e d o n e in s te p s .” 4 . J o h n s a id to h is f a th e r, “ I w a n t t o g o to a re s ta u ra n t b u t I d o n ’t h a v e e n o u g h m o n e y .” 5. H e s a id t o N ic k , “ I d i d n ’t u n d e r s ta n d t h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a th e o d o lite a n d a le v e l i n s t r u m e n t .” b ) R e q u e sts an d ord ers Example said to m e , “ Switch th e c o m p u t e r o n , p l e a s e .” — H e asked m e to switch th e c o m p u t e r o n . S h e said to m e , “ Don’t waste m o n e y .” — S h e told m e not to waste m o n e y . He 1. T h e te a c h e r s a id t o h is s t u d e n ts , “ G iv e tw o e x a m p le s o f t h e b a s ic to o ls u s e d i n s u rv e y in g a n d b u ild in g t o tr a n s f e r , m e a s u r e , o r s e t h o r iz o n ta l le v e ls .” 2 . 1 a s k e d m y f r ie n d , “ H e lp m e t o so lv e th is p r o b le m , p l e a s e .” 3. H e s a id , “ D o n ’t b u y th e s e b o o k s , T o m . ” 4 . H e s a id t o u s , “ R e a d a r tic le s o n b u ild in g c o n s tr u c tio n in a n y E n g lis h o r A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l o r n e w s p a p e r t o im p r o v e y o u r c o n s tr u c tio n e n g in e e r in g v o c a b u la r y .” 5. T h e te a c h e r s a id t o u s, “ D o n ’t m a k e s o m a n y m is ta k e s in y o u r E n g lis h te s t p a p e r s .” c ) G en era l ( Y e s /N o ) q u e stio n s Example asked m e , “Do y o u go t o u n iv e r s ity ? ” — A la n asked m e if (whether) I went to u n iv e rs ity . A la n __________________________________ _____________________ UNIT 9. SURVEYING | 2 0 1 1. H e a s k e d , “ D id y o u liv e in a d e t a c h e d h o u s e o u ts id e B ir m in g h a m ? ” 2. S h e a s k e d h e r f r ie n d , “ I s y o u r h o u s e s m a ll? ” 3. W e a s k e d h i m , “ H a v e y o u m o v e d i n t o a tw o - b e d r o o m e d m u n ic ip a l h o u s e ? ” 4. S h e w a n te d t o k n o w , “ C a n y o u a f f o r d t o g o o n h o lid a y th is y e a r ? ” 5. M y f r ie n d a s k e d m e , “ W ill y o u b u y a n a p a r tm e n t n e x t y e a r? ” d) S p e c ia l ( w h - ) q u e stio n s Example S h e asked, “ W hat did y o u discuss a t t h e s e m i n a r o n S u r v e y in g ? ” — S h e asked m e what'fit had discussed at th e s e m in a r o n S u rv e y in g . 1. T h e te a c h e r a s k e d u s, “ W h a t su rv e y in g e q u ip m e n t is u s e d in R u s s ia ? ” 2. H e a s k e d m e , “ H o w m u c h d id y o u p a y f o r y o u r E n g lis h - R u s s ia n d ic tio n a r y ? ” 3. H e a s k e d h is f r ie n d , “ W h e n c a n y o u in v ite m e r o u n d to s e e y o u r m o b ile h o u s e ? ” 4. S h e a s k e d m e , “ W h a t is t h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a n a u t o m a t i c le v e l a n d a s e lf ­ le v e llin g le v e l? ” 5 . H e a s k e d m e , “ W h e n w ill y o u h a v e y o u r fie ld t r a in in g ? ” 1 2 . A sk fo r th e in fo r m a tio n u sin g C o u ld y o u t e l l m e ? / D o y o u to k n o w ? 1. W h a t h o u s e w o u ld y o u r a t h e r liv e in ? 2. Is y o u r h o u s e d e ta c h e d ? W h a t s o r t is it if n o t? 3. W h a t f lo o r d o y o u liv e o n ? 4 . Is y o u r h o u s e in a q u ie t r e s id e n tia l a r e a ? 5. I n w h a t sty le is th e a r c h ite c tu r e o f t h e lo c a l c a th e d r a l? 6. W h a t is s p e c ia l a b o u t th e b u ild in g o f th e u n iv e r s ity y o u g o to ? 202 I Аипннкиийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 1 3 . B e fo r e y o u rea d T e x t 9 A “ S u r v e y in g T e c h n iq u e s” , d is c u s s t h e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s o r te a c h e r . a ) W h a t s u rv e y in g in s tr u m e n ts d o y o u k n o w ? b ) W h a t s c ie n tific k n o w le d g e d o su rv e y o rs u s e f o r s u rv e y in g ? c ) W h a t a s s o c ia te d s e rv ic e s d o e s la n d su rv e y in g in c lu d e ? d ) W h y h a s su rv e y in g a lw a y s b e e n im p o r ta n t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h u m a n e n v iro n m e n t? e ) W h a t m o d e r n u s e s o f s u rv e y in g d o y o u k n o w ? f) H o w c a n a s u rv e y o r m e a s u re a slo p e ? g ) H o w w a s a c o m p a s s im p ro v e d ? h ) W h y a re le v e ls c a lib ra te d ? i) H o w is t h e h e ig h t o f a m o u n t a i n d e t e r m in e d ? 1 4 . R e a d T e x t 9 A to fin d o u t i f y o u r a n s w e r s a r e r ig h t o r w r o n g . D is c u s s y o u r a n sw e r s in p a irs. • TEXT 9A Surveying Techniques S u rv e y in g o r la n d s u rv e y in g is t h e te c h n i q u e a n d s c ie n c e o f d e te r m in in g th e te rr e s tr ia l o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e p o s i t i o n o f p o in ts a n d th e d is ta n c e s a n d a n g le s b e tw e e n t h e m . T h e s e p o in ts a re u s u a lly o n t h e s u rfa c e o f t h e E a r th , a n d a re o f te n u s e d to e s ta b lis h la n d m a p s a n d b o u n d a rie s f o r o w n e rs h ip o r g o v e rn m e n ta l p u rp o se s. I n o r d e r t o a c c o m p lis h t h e i r o b je c tiv e , su rv e y o rs u se e le m e n ts o f g e o m e try , e n g in e e n n g , t r ig o n o m e tr y , m a th e m a tic s , p h y s ic s , a n d law . F u r th e r m o r e , a p a r tic u la r ty p e o f su rv e y in g k n o w n a s la n d su rv ey in g is th e d e ta ile d s tu d y o r in s p e c tio n b y g a th e rin g in fo rm a tio n th r o u g h o b s e rv a tio n s , m e a s u r e m e n ts in t h e fie ld , q u e s tio n n a ir e s , UNIT 9 . SURVEYING 203 o r r e s e a r c h o f le g a l in s tr u m e n ts , a n d d a t a a n a ly s is in t h e s u p p o r t o f p la n n in g , d e s ig n in g , a n d e sta b lish in g o f p ro p e rty b o u n d a rie s. It in v o lv e s th e r e - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f c a d a s tra l su rv e y s and la n d b o u n d a r ie s b a s e d o n d o c u m e n ts o f r e c o r d a n d h is to r ic a l e v id e n c e , a s w e ll a s c e r tif y in g su rv ey s o f su b d iv is io n p l a ts /m a p s , r e g is te re d la n d su rv e y s, ju d ic ia l su rv e y s, a n d s p a c e d e lin e a tio n . L a n d su rv e y in g c a n in c lu d e a s s o c ia te d s e rv ic e s , s u c h a s m a p p in g a n d r e la te d d a ta a c c u m u la tio n , c o n s tr u c tio n la y o u t su rv e y s, p r e c is io n m e a s u r e m e n ts of l e n g t h , a n g le , e le v a tio n , a r e a , a n d v o lu m e , a s w e ll a s h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r tic a l c o n t r o l s u r v e y s , a n d t h e a n a ly s is a n d u tiliz a tio n o f l a n d s u rv e y d a ta . S u rv e y in g h a s b e e n a n e s s e n tia l e le m e n t i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e h u m a n e n v ir o n m e n t s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f r e c o r d e d h is to ry (5 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o ) a n d it is a r e q u ir e m e n t in th e p la n n in g a n d e x e c u tio n o f n e a r ly e v e r y f o r m o f c o n s tr u c tio n . I ts m o s t f a m ilia r m o d e m u s e s a re in t h e fie ld s o f tr a n s p o r t, b u ild in g a n d c o n s tr u c tio n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , m a p p in g , a n d th e d e f i n i t i o n o f le g a l b o u n d a r ie s f o r l a n d o w n e r s h ip . H is to r ic a lly , d i s ta n c e s w e re m e a s u r e d u s in g a v a r ie ty o f m e a n s , s u c h a s c h a in s w ith lin k s o f a k n o w n le n g th , f o r in s ta n c e a G u n t e r ’s c h a i n o r m e a s u r in g t a p e s m a d e o f s te e l. I n o r d e r t o m e a s u r e h o r iz o n ta l d is ta n c e s , th e s e c h a in s o r ta p e s w o u ld b e p u lle d a c c o rd in g t o te m p e r a t u r e t o r e d u c e sa g g in g a n d s la c k . A d d itio n a lly , a tte m p ts t o h o ld t h e m e a s u r in g in s tr u m e n t level w o u ld b e m a d e . I n in s ta n c e s o f m e a s u r in g u p a s lo p e , t h e s u r v e y o r m ig h t h a v e t o “ b r e a k ” th e m e a s u r e m e n t — t h a t is, r a is e t h e r e a r p a r t o f t h e t a p e u p w a r d , p lu m b f r o m w h e r e th e la s t m e a s u r e m e n t e n d e d . H o r iz o n ta l a n g le s w e r e m e a s u r e d u s in g a c o m p a s s w h ic h w o u ld p r o v id e a m a g n e tic b e a r in g f r o m w h i c h d e f l e c t i o n s c o u l d b e m e a s u r e d . T h is ty p e o f i n s tr u m e n t w a s la te r i m p r o v e d w ith m o r e 204I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c a r e f u lly s c r ib e d d is c s p r o v id in g b e t t e r a n g u la r r e s o lu tio n , a s w e ll as th r o u g h m o u n tin g te le sc o p e s w ith re tic le s fo r m o r e p re c ise sig h tin g a to p t h e d is c . A d d itio n a lly , le v e ls a n d c a lib r a te d c ir c le s a llo w in g m e a s u r e m e n t o f v e rtic a l a n g le s w e re a d d e d . T h e s im p le st m e th o d f o r m e a s u rin g h e ig h t is w ith a n a ltim e te r — b a s ic a lly a b a r o m e t e r — u s in g a ir p r e s s u r e a s a n i n d ic a tio n o f h e ig h t, b u t su rv e y in g r e q u ire s g r e a te r p r e c is io n . A v a rie ty o f m e a n s , s u c h a s p r e c is e le v e ls, h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d t o d o th is . L e v e ls a r e c a lib r a te d to p r o v id e a p r e c is e p l a n e f r o m w h ic h d if f e r e n tia ls in h e ig h t b e tw e e n th e i n s tr u m e n t a n d t h e p o in t in q u e s tio n c a n b e m e a s u r e d , ty p ic a lly th r o u g h th e u se o f a v e r tic a l m e a s u r in g r o d . W ith t h e t r i a n g u la tio n m e t h o d , o n e first n e e d s to k n o w th e h o r i z o n ta l d is ta n c e t o th e o b je c t. T h e h e ig h t o f a n o b je c t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y m e a s u r in g th e a n g le b e tw e e n t h e h o r iz o n ta l p la n e a n d t h e lin e th r o u g h t h a t p o in t a t a k n o w n d is ta n c e a n d th e to p o f t h e o b je c t. I n o r d e r to d e te r m in e t h e h e ig h t o f a m o u n t a i n , o n e s h o u ld d o th is fr o m th e s e a le v e l, b u t h e r e th e d is ta n c e s c a n b e t o o g r e a t a n d th e m o u n t a i n m a y n o t b e v isib le . S o it is d o n e in s te p s , first d e te r m in in g t h e p o s itio n o f o n e p o i n t , t h e n m o v in g t o t h a t p o i n t a n d d o in g a re la tiv e m e a s u r e m e n t, a n d s o o n u n til t h e m o u n t a i n t o p is r e a c h e d . 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 9 A t h e p aragrap h sa y in g a b o u t la n d su r v e y in g a n d tr a n s la te it in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p a ra g ra p h s 4 a n d 5 o f T e x t 9 A . 1 7 . F in d in T e x t 9 A th e d e fin itio n s o f t h e fo llo w in g te r m s a n d tr a n s la te th e m in to R u ssia n : a ) s u rv e y in g ; b ) c h a in s ; c ) a com p ass; d ) a n a ltim e te r ; e ) a le v e llin g in s tr u m e n t; UNIT 9 . SURVEYING L lif f) c a lib r a te d c irc le s ; g ) a tr ia n g u l a t i o n m e th o d . 1 8 . F in d in T e x t 9 A s o m e k e y w o r d s a n d e x p r e s s io n s to speak ab o u t su r v e y in g te c h n iq u e s. R e te ll th e T e x t in E n g lish . 19 . S k im T e x t 9 B “ L a n d S u r v e y in g ” a n d try to u n d erstan d w h a t it is ab o u t an d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is k n o w n to y o u . • TEXT 9B Land Surveying T h e a im o f c a d a stra l surveys is to re -e sta b lish a n d m a rk th e c o m e rs o f o rig in a l l a n d b o u n d a r ie s . T h e first s ta g e is t o r e s e a r c h re le v a n t re c o r d s s u c h a s l a n d t itle s (d e e d s ) , su rv e y m o n u m e n t a t i o n (m a rk s o n th e g ro u n d ) a n d a n y p u b lic o r p riv a te re c o rd s th a t p ro v id e relevant d a ta . T h e jo b o f a b o u n d a r y s u rv e y o r r e t r a c i n g a d e e d o r p r io r su rv e y is t o lo c a te s u c h m o n u m e n ts a n d v e rify t h e ir c o r r e c t p o s itio n . O v e r tim e , d e v e lo p m e n t, v a n d a lis m a n d a c ts o f n a tu r e o f te n w re a k h a v o c o n m o n u m e n ts , so t h e b o u n d a r y s u rv e y o r is o f t e n fo r c e d t o c o n s i d e r o t h e r e v id e n c e s u c h a s f e n c e l o c a t i o n s , w o o d lin e s , m o n u m e n ts o n th e n e ig h b o rin g p ro p e rty , p a ro le e v id e n c e a n d o th e r e v id e n c e . M o n u m e n t s a re th e m a rk s o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t d e f in e lo c a tio n P e g s a re c o m m o n ly u s e d t o m a r k b o u n d a r y c o m e r s . S m a ll p e g s in t h e g r o u n d a n d s te e l ro d s a re u s e d a s in s t r u m e n t lo c a tio n s a n d r e f e re n c e m a rk s , c o m m o n ly c a lle d s u rv e y c o n tr o l. M a r k s s h o u ld b e d u r a b le a n d l o n g la s tin g , s ta b le s o t h e m a rk s d o n o t m o v e o v e r tim e , safe fro m d is tu rb a n c e a n d safe to w o rk a t. T h e a im is to p ro v id e s u f f i c i e n t m a r k s s o s o m e m a r k s w ill r e m a i n f o r f u t u r e r e ­ e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f b o u n d a r i e s . E x a m p le s o f ty p i c a l m a n - m a d e m o n u m e n ts a re s te e l ro d s , p i p e s o r b a r s w ith p la s tic , a lu m i n u m o r b ra ss c a p s c o n ta in in g d e s c rip tiv e m a rk in g s a n d o f te n b e a rin g th e lic e n s e n u m b e r o f th e s u rv e y o r re s p o n s ib le fo r t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t 206[Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей o f s u c h . T h e m a te r ia l a n d m a r k in g u s e d o n m o n u m e n t s p la c e d t o m a r k b o u n d a r y c o m e r s a r e o f te n s u b je c t t o s ta te la w s /s ta tu te s . A to ta l s ta tio n o r G P S ( G lo b a l P o s itio n in g S y s te m ) is s e t - u p o v e r s u rv e y m a r k s w h ic h w e re p la c e d a s p a r t o f a p r e v io u s s u rv e y , o r n e w ly p la c e d m a rk s . T h e d a t u m is e s ta b lis h e d b y m e a s u r in g b e tw e e n p o in ts o n a p re v io u s su r v e y a n d a r o t a t i o n is a p p lie d t o o r ie n ta te t h e n e w s u rv e y t o c o r r e s p o n d w ith t h e p r e v io u s s u rv e y o r a s ta n d a r d m a p g r id T h e d a t a a r e a n a ly s e d a n d c o m p a r is o n s a r e m a d e w ith th e e x is tin g re c o r d s t o d e te r m in e e v id e n c e w h ic h c a n b e u s e d to e s ta b lis h b o u n d a r y p o s itio n s . T h e d is ta n c e o f lin e s b e tw e e n th e b o u n d a r y c o m e r s a n d to ta l s ta tio n p o s itio n s a r e c a lc u la te d a n d u s e d to s e t o u t a n d m a r k t h e c o m e r s in t h e f ie ld . C h e c k s a r e m a d e b y m e a s u r in g d ir e c tly b e tw e e n p e g p la c e s u s in g a fle x ib le ta p e . S u b d iv is io n o f la n d g e n e ra lly r e q u ir e s th a t t h e e x te r n a l b o u n d a iy is r e - e s t a b l i s h e d a n d m a r k e d u s in g p e g s , a n d t h e n e w in t e r n a l b o u n d a r ie s a re t h e n m a r k e d . A p l a t (su rv e y p la n ) a n d d e s c r ip tio n ( d e p e n d in g o n lo c a l a n d sta te r e q u ir e m e n ts ) a re c o m p ile d , t h e f in a l r e p o r t is lo d g e d w ith th e a p p r o p r ia te g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic e ( o f te n r e q u ir e d b y la w ) , a n d c o p ie s a re p r o v id e d t o t h e c lie n t. M a n y p r o p e r tie s h a v e c o n s id e r a b le p r o b le m s w ith re g a rd s to im p r o p e r b o u n d in g , m is c a lc u la tio n s in p a s t s u rv e y s , title s , a n d o th e rs . A lso m a n y p ro p e r tie s a re c r e a te d f r o m m u ltip le d iv isio n s o f a la r g e r p ie c e o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f y e a r s , a n d w ith e v e r y a d d itio n a l d iv is io n th e risk o f m is c a lc u la tio n in c r e a s e s . T h e re s u lt c a n b e a b u ttin g p r o p e r tie s n o t c o in c id in g w ith a d ja c e n t p a r c e ls , r e s u ltin g in g a p s a n d o v e rla p s . T h e a r t c o m e s in w h e n a s u r v e y o r m u s t so lv e a p u z z le u s in g p ie c e s th a t d o n o t e x a c tly fit t o g e th e r . In th e s e c a se s th e s o lu tio n is b a s e d u p o n t h e r e s e a rc h o f th e su rv e y o r, a n d f o llo w in g e s ta b lis h e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r re so lv in g d is c r e p a n c ie s . 20. T ext 9B . G ive a b r ie f ov erv iew o f th e str u c tu r e an d c o n te n ts o f UNIT 9 . SURVEYING 207 2 1 . C o m p le te t h e s e n t e n c e s c h o o sin g th e b e st v a ria n t a c c o r d in g to T ext 9B . 1) A b o u n d a r y s u r v e y o r ’s j o b is a ) t o m a r k t h e c o m e r s o f t h e la n d b o u n d a r i e s d e s ir e d b y a c u s to m e r. b ) t o p r o v id e s o m e r e le v a n t d a ta . c ) t o lo c a te m a r k s o n t h e g r o u n d . 2) P e g s a r e u s e d to a ) v e rify th e b o u n d a r ie s . b ) lo c a te b o u n d a r ie s . c ) m a k e w o r k safe. 3 ) T o e s ta b lis h b o u n d a r y p o s itio n s a ) e v id e n c e o f t h e e x is tin g r e c o r d s is u s e d . b ) th e d is ta n c e b e t w e e n p o i n t s o n a p r e v io u s s u r v e y is m e a su re d . c ) th e g lo b a l p o s itio n in g s y s te m is s e t u p . 4 ) C h e c k s are m a d e b y a ) m a r k in g th e c o m e r s in t h e fie ld . b ) m e a s u r in g t h e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n p e g s. c ) s u b d iv id in g la n d . 5 ) M a n y p r o p e r tie s h a v e p r o b le m s r e g a r d in g a ) a b u ttin g t h e m . b ) m u ltip le d iv is io n s o f a l a n d p ie c e . c ) im p r o p e r c a lc u la tio n s . 2 2 . R e a d T e x t 9 C “ S u r v e y in g E q u ip m e n t” a n d a n sw e r th e q u e s tio n s . D is c u s s y o u r a n s w e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a ) W h y is a th e o d o l i t e r e g a r d e d a s a k e y s u r v e y in g in s t r u m e n t ? b ) W h a t d o e s a th e o d o l i t e c o n s is t o f? 208I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c ) W h a t a re b o t h a x e s o f a th e o d o lite e q u ip p e d w ith ? d ) W h a t is a h o r iz o n ta l a x is e r r o r ? e ) H o w is th e sig h t a x is d e te r m in e d ? f) W h y a r e h o r iz o n ta l ax is, c o llim a tio n , a n d in d e x e r r o r s ta k e n in to a c c o u n t in th e c h o ic e o f th e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e d u r e ? g ) H o w is a t h e o d o lite a d ju s te d ? h ) H o w is a le v e llin g in s tr u m e n t o p e r a te d ? 1) W h y a r e se lf - le v e llin g i n s tr u m e n ts p r e f e r r e d o n s ite s ? j) W h a t is a d ig ita l e le c tr o n ic le v e l? • TEXT 9C Surveying Equipm ent A s la te a s th e 1990s th e b a s ic to o ls u s e d in p l a n a r su rv e y in g w e re a ta p e m e a s u r e , a th e o d o lite a n d a le v e l. A th e o d o lite is a n in s tr u m e n t f o r m e a s u r in g b o t h h o r iz o n ta l a n d v e r tic a l a n g le s . I t is a k e y to o l in s u r v e y in g a n d e n g in e e r in g w o r k , p a r tic u la r ly o n in a c c e s s ib le g r o u n d , b u t th e o d o l i t e s h a v e b e e n a d a p te d f o r o t h e r s p e c ia liz e d p u r p o s e s in fie ld s lik e m e te o r o lo g y a n d r o c k e t la u n c h te c h n o lo g y . A m o d e m t h e o d o lite co n sists o f a m o v a b le te le sc o p e m o u n te d w ith in tw o p e r p e n d ic u la r a x e s — th e h o r iz o n ta l o r tr u n n io n , a n d t h e v e rtic a l a x is W h e n th e te le s c o p e is p o in te d a t a d e s ir e d o b je c t, th e a n g le o f e a c h o f th e s e a x e s c a n b e m e a s u r e d w ith g re a t p r e c is io n , ty p ic a lly o n t h e s c a le o f arcseco n d s. B o th ax es o f a th e o d o lite are e q u ip p e d w ith g ra d u a te d circles th a t c a n An optical theodolite, manufactured in the Soviet Union in 1958 b e re a d o u t th r o u g h m a g n ify in g le n se s. a n d u s e d fo r to p o g ra p h ic s u rv e y in g . t h e sig h t ax is is h o r iz o n ta l, o r 270° w h e n t h e i n s tr u m e n t is in its s e c o n d T h e v e rtic a l c irc le sh o u ld re a d 90° w h e n UNIT9. SURVEYING 209 p o s itio n , t h a t is, tu r n e d o v e r o r p lu n g e d . H a l f o f th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e tw o p o s itio n s is c a lle d t h e in d e x e r r o r . T h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r tic a l a x e s o f a t h e o d o l i t e m u s t b e p e rp e n d ic u la r. T h e c o n d itio n w h e re th e y d e v ia te fro m p e r p e n d ic u la r ity a n d th e a m o u n t b y w h ic h th e y d o is r e f e r r e d t o a s a h o n z o n t a l a x is e r r o r . T h e o p tic a l a x is o f th e t e le s c o p e , c a lle d th e s ig h t a x is a n d d e f in e d b y th e o p tic a l c e n t e r o f t h e o b je c tiv e a n d th e c e n t e r o f t h e c r o s s h a ir s in its f o c a l p l a n e , m u s t s im ila r ly b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x is . A n y d e v i a t i o n f r o m p e r p e n d ic u la r ity is th e c o llim a tio n e r r o r . A h o r i z o n t a l a x is e r r o r , a c o llim a tio n e r r o r , a n d a n in d e x e r r o r a r e r e g u la r ly d e t e r m i n e d b y c a l i b r a t i o n a n d a r e r e m o v e d b y m e c h a n ic a l a d ju s tm e n t a t th e f a c to r y in c a s e th e y g ro w la rg e . T h e ir e x is te n c e is t a k e n in to a c c o u n t in th e c h o ic e o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e d u r e in o r d e r t o e lim in a te t h e i r e f f e c t o n th e m e a s u r e m e n t r e su lts. A t h e o d o l i t e is m o u n t e d o n its t r i p o d h e a d b y m e a n s o f a fo rc e d c e n te r in g p la te c o n ta in in g f o u r th u m b s c re w s , o r in so m e m o d e m t h e o d o l i t e s , t h r e e , f o r r a p i d l e v e llin g B e f o r e i ts u s e , a t h e o d o l i t e m u s t b e p l a c e d p r e c is e ly a n d v e r tic a lly o v e r th e p o i n t t o b e m e a s u r e d — c e n t e r i n g — a n d its v e r t i c a l a x is a l i g n e d w ith lo c a l g r a v ity — le v e llin g . T h e le v e l i n s tr u m e n t is a n o p tic a l in s t r u m e n t u s e d in s u rv e y in g a n d b u ild in g t o t r a n s f e r , m e a s u r e , o r s e t h o r i z o n t a l le v e ls. I t is s e t u p o n a t r i p o d a n d , d e p e n d in g o n t h e ty p e , e i t h e r r o u g h ly o r a c c u r a te ly s e t t o a le v e lle d c o n d i t i o n u s in g le v e llin g s c r e w s . T h e o p e r a to r lo o k s th r o u g h th e e y e p ie c e o f th e t e le s c o p e w h ile a n assista n t h o ld s a t a p e m e a s u r e o r g r a d u a te d s t a f f v e r tic a l a t th e p o i n t u n d e r m e a s u re m e n t. T h e in s t r u m e n t a n d s ta f f a r e u s e d t o g a t h e r a n d / o r tr a n s f e r e le v a tio n s (le v e ls ) d u r in g s ite su rv e y s o r b u i ld in g c o n s tr u c tio n . M e a s u r e m e n t g e n e ra lly s ta r ts fr o m a b e n c h m a r k w ith k n o w n h e ig h t d e t e r m i n e d b y a p r e v io u s s u rv e y , o r a n a r b itr a r y p o i n t w ith a n a s s u m e d h e ig h t. 210 Английский язы кдлл студентов строительных специальностей A n a u to m a tic le v e l, s e lf - le v e llin g le v e l o r b u i l d e r ’s a u to le v e l, in c lu d e s a n i n te r n a l c o m p e n s a t o r m e c h a n is m ( a s w in g in g p r is m ) th a t, w h e n s e t c lo s e to le v e l, a u to m a tic a lly re m o v e s a n y r e m a in in g v a r ia tio n f r o m le v e l. T h is r e d u c e s th e n e e d t o s e t th e in s tr u m e n t t r u l y le v e l, a s w i t h a d u m p y o r t i l t i n g le v e l. S e l f - l e v e l l i n g i n s t r u m e n t s a r e t h e p r e f e r r e d i n s t r u m e n t o n b u i l d i n g s ite s , c o n s tr u c tio n a n d s u rv e y in g d u e t o e a s e o f u s e a n d ra p id s e tu p tim e . A d ig ita l e le c tr o n ic level is a ls o s e t le v e l o n a t r i p o d a n d r e a d s a b a r - c o d e d s ta f f u s in g e le c tr o n ic la s e r m e th o d s . T h e h e ig h t o f th e s ta f f w h e r e t h e le v e l b e a m c r o s s e s t h e s ta f f is s h o w n o n a d ig ita l d isp la y . T h is ty p e o f le v e l r e m o v e s in te r p o la tio n o f g r a d u a tio n b y a p e r s o n , th u s r e m o v in g a s o u r c e o f e r r o r a n d in c r e a s in g a c c u r a c y . SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 23. L is te n t o t h e T e x t “ S u r v e y in g a s a C a r e e r ” . a ) A n sw e r th e q u e stio n s t h a t fo llo w . 1. W h a t e x p e r ts d o e s civ il e n g in e e r in g d e p e n d o n ? 2 . W h a t a r e a s a n d s t r u c tu r e s a r e s u r v e y o r s in v o lv e d in ? 3. W h a t d o e s a s u r v e y o r ’s w o r k in c lu d e ? 4 . W h a t s c ie n tif ic k n o w le d g e m u s t a s u r v e y o r h a v e ? 5 . S h o u ld a s u r v e y o r b e g o o d a t le g a l a s p e c ts in h is w o r k ? 6. S h o u ld a s u r v e y o r b e a b le t o o p e r a te s u r v e y in g in s tr u m e n ts ? 7. W h y is su rv e y in g a d is tin c t p r o f e s s io n a p a r t f r o m e n g in e e r in g in t h e U S A ? 8 . W h a t is r e q u ir e d t o g e t a q u a lif ic a tio n o f a s u rv e y o r? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 9 A o f th e T e x t . L o o k u p t h e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a r y . c) R e te ll th e T e x t a b ou t a su rv ey o r’s re sp o n sib ilitie s an d d u tie s. UNIT 9. SURVEYING 211 d) T e ll y o u r g r o u p m a te s a b o u t o n e o f y o u r r e la tiv e s o r f r ie n d s w o r k in g a s a s u r v e y o r . 24. L i s t e n t o t h e T e x t “ M o d e r n T h e o d o lite s ” . a ) C o m p le te t h e s e n t e n c e s a c c o r d in g t o t h e T e x t . I n to d a y ’s th e o d o lite s , t h e __________ o f th e h o r iz o n ta l a n d vertical ___________ is u s u a lly d o n e ____________ . T h e r e a d o u t is d o n e b y a r o ta r y ___________ , w h ic h c a n b e a b s o lu te , e .g . u s in g G r a y c o d e s , o r in c r e m e n t a l , u s i n g ___________ lig h t a n d d a r k r a d ia l____________ . I n t h e l a tte r c a s e t h e c i r c l e s ___________ r a p id ly , r e d u c in g a n g le ___________ t o e l e c t r o n i c ____________o f t im e d if f e r e n c e s . A d d itio n a lly , la te ly c o m p u te r - c o n tr o lle d ___________s e n s o r s h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o t h e fo c a l p la n e o f th e t e l e s c o p e ___________b o th a u to t a tg e tin g a n d t h e __________m e a s u r e m e n t o f r e s id u a l ta r g e t o ffs e t. A ll th is i s ___________ in e m b e d d e d so ftw a re . A lso , m a n y m o d e m th e o d o lite s , c o s tin g u p t o ___________a p ie c e , a r e __________________ w ith in t e g r a t e d e l e c t r o - o p t i c a l d i s t a n c e m e a s u r i n g ___________ , g e n e r a l l y i n f r a r e d b a s e d , a l l o w i n g t h e ___________in o n e g o o f c o m p l e t e ___________ v e c to r s w h ic h c a n th e n b e ___________ t o a p r e - e x i s t i n g ____________ s y s te m in th e a r e a b y ___________ o f a s u f f ic ie n t n u m b e r o f c o n t r o l ___________ . T h is ___________ is c a lle d a r e s e c tio n s o lu tio n o r fr e e s t a t i o n p o s i t i o n ___________ a n d is w id e ly u s e d in ___________ s u r v e y in g . T h e in s tru m e n ts , “ in te llig e n t” th e o d o lite s c a l l e d ___________ta c h e o m e te r s o r “ to ta l s ta tio n s ” , ___________ th e n e c e s s a r y o p e r a t i o n s , ___________ d a ta in to in te r n a l re g is te rin g u n its , o r in to e x te r n a l d a t a ___________ d e v ic e s. T y p ic a lly , r u g g e d iz e d ___________a re u s e d a s d a ta c o lle c to r s f o r t h i s ___________ . b ) C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s a n d T a p e s c r i p t 9 B o f t h e T e x t . L o o k u p t h e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in t h e d ic tio n a r y . c ) R e te ll t h e T e x t a b o u t th e o d o lite s . UNIT 10 FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1. R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e t h e a c t iv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ F o u n d a tio n s” an d tr a n sla te th e giv en s e n t e n c e s . 1. tr a n sfe r [ 'tr a s s n f a :] [ tr a s n s 'f a : ] n v — п е р е н о с , п е р е д а ч а ; перен оси ть, п ередавать, п ерем ещ ать tr a n sfe r a lo a d — п е р е д а в а т ь н а г р у з к у the transfer o f lo a d s f r o m f lo o rs to be transferred th r o u g h c o p p e r b u t n o t t h r o u g h T h e y u s e d th e d e v ic e f o r c o lu m n s . H e a t c a n w ood 2 d eep fo u n d a tio n — ф у н д а м е н т г л у б о к о г о з а л о ж е н и я flo a tin g fo u n d a tio n [ 'f b u t i r j ] — п л а в а ю щ и й ф у н д а м е н т fr ic tio n fo u n d a tio n [ f r ik /n ] — в и с я ч и й с в а й н ы й ф у н д а ­ м ент p ile fou n d a tio n [ 'p a i l ] — с в а й н ы й ф у н д а м е н т sh a llo w fou n d a tio n ['J a e la u ] — ф у н д а м е н т м е л к о г о з а л о ­ ж ения s la b -o n -g r a d e fou n d a tio n — с п л о ш н о й ф у н д а м е н т T h e r e m a y b e a lo t o f c o n d itio n s w h i c h m a y r e q u ir e deep foundations f o r e n s u r in g s ta b ility a n d d u r a b ility o f a s tr u c tu r e . W h e n th e so il is s o so ft t h a t e v e n f r ic tio n p ile s w ill n o t s u p p o r t th e b u ild in g l o a d , th e f in a l o p t i o n is th e u s e o f a floating foundation. A pile foundation p r o v id e s a c o m m o n s o lu tio n t o a ll d iffic u lt UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS f o u n d a t i o n s ite p r o b le m s . 213 A shallow foundation tr a n s f e r s b u ild in g lo a d s t o t h e e a r t h v e ry n e a r t h e s u r f a c e . A lite r a tu r e re v ie w w a s u n d e rta k e n to identify s o m e p ro b le m s w ith re sp e c t t o th e c o n s tr u c tio n of slab-on-grade foundations. 3. fo o tin g n — ф ундам ент, осн овани е; опора sp r e a d fo o tin g — ф у н д а м е н т н а е с т е с т в е н н о м о с н о в а н и и A sq u a re footing is th e sim p le st a n d m o st e c o n o m ic a l to b e p ro v id e d u n d e r p illa r s o r c o lu m n s . I n c a s e o f spread footings, th e b a s e o f th e m e m b e r t r a n s m ittin g l o a d t o th e so il is m a d e w id e r s o a s t o d is tr ib u te t h e lo a d o v e r w id e r a r e a . 4. em b e d [ i m 'b e d ] v — п о г р у ж а т ь , з а г л у б л я т ь , в м о н т и р о ­ вать The b eam was embedded in a f o u n d a tio n . 5 . la y e r [ 'І е іэ ] n — с л о й , п л а с т , ряд la y e r o f so il — г р у н т о в ы й с л о й I n m a k in g b e a m s , c a re s h o u ld b e ta k e n t o a v o id p la c in g c o n c r e te in layers. T h e t h i n layer o f soil t h a t c o v e r s m o s t o f th e e a r t h ’s l a n d s u r f a c e is v ita l to h u m a n su rv iv a l. 6. p ile n v — свая, столб d rive a p ile — з а б и в а т ь с в а ю d riven p ile — з а б и т а я с в а я b e a r in g pile — н е с у щ а я с в а я , с в а я - с т о й к а , с в а я - к о л о н н а h e lic a l p ile [ 'h e l i k l ] — с п и р а л ь н а я с в а я fr ic tio n p ile — в и с я ч а я с в а я prefabricated pile — г о т о в а я с в а я (з а в о д с к о г о и з г о т о в л е н и я ) s t e e l H - p ile — с т а л ь н а я с в а я и з ш и р о к о п о л о ч н о г о д в у ­ тавра Piles are driven in to th e g r o u n d b y d if f e r e n t m e th o d s . Driven piles m a i n t a i n t h e i r s h a p e d u r in g in s ta lla tio n . Bearing piles a c t a s 214I Английский язы к для студентов строительныхспециальностей p illa rs, s u p p o rtin g t h e s u p e r s tr u c tu r e a n d tr a n s m ittin g th e lo a d d o w n t o t h e le v e l a t w h ic h it c a n b e s a fe ly b o r n e by t h e g r o u n d . The helical piles a r e p la c e d t o t h e d e p t h a n d s o il s t r a t a t o d e v e lo p th e Friction piles a r e d n v e n in t h e ty p e o f s o il w h o s e s tr e n g th d o e s n o t in c r e a s e w ith d e p th . The prefabricated pile is r e q u ir e d lo a d s . u se fu l f o r a n y k in d o f w o r k s a n d p r e s e n ts a n in c r e a s e d s tr e n g th a g a in s t te n s ile a n d c o m p r e s s iv e stre sse s. A steel H-pile is u s e d in a v a rie ty o f c o n s tr u c tio n p r o je c ts in c lu d in g h e a v y h ig h w a y , p u b lic a n d in d u s tr ia l w o r k s , e tc . 7 . c o n c r e te p a d — б е т о н н а я п о д у ш к а P o u r in g a concrete pad is n o t m u c h d if f e r e n t t h a n p o u r in g a n y ty p e o f c o n c r e te sla b . 8. c a is s o n [ 'k e i s a n ] — с в а я - к о л о н н а , к е с с о н н а я с в а я T h e s h a p e a n d siz e o f a caisson d e p e n d s u p o n t h e n a tu r e o f s tr u c tu r e . 9. p ie r [ 'р і э ] n — б ы к , о п о р а, сто й к а, столб M ak e su re th a t the pier is le v e l v e r tic a lly , u s in g a v e r tic a l le v e l. 10. sta b iliz e [ 's te i b a l a i z ] v — у к р е п л я т ь , о б е с п е ч и в а т ь у с ­ той ч и вость, стабилизировать It is n e c e s s a r y to stabilize t h e g r o u n d u n d e r th e f o u n d a tio n . 11. bearing (lo a d ) ca p a city [k a 'p a s s a ti] — н е с у щ а я с п о с о б н о с т ь The bearing capacity o f a n I - b e a m c a n b e lim ite d b y th r e e diffe re n t c a p a c itie s. 12. s e t t le t 's e t l ] v — с а д и т ь с я , о с а ж д а т ь с я , д а в а т ь о с а д о к s e ttle m e n t [ 's e t l m a n t ] n — осадка, оседание differential settlem en t [ ,d if o 'r e n f l] — н е р а в н о м е р н а я о с а д к а UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS 215 T h e s ix -s to re y b u ild in g o f th e I n s u r a n c e C o m p a n y se ttle d se v e ra l in c h e s a t its n o r t h e a s te r ly c o m e r . M o s t h o u s e s e x p e r ie n c e s o m e d e g r e e o f s e ttle m e n t w ith in t h e firs t fe w y e a r s a f te r c o n s tr u c tio n . D iffe re n tia l s e ttle m e n t in a h ig h ris e b u ild in g is d a n g e r o u s . 13. s tif f n — ж е с т к и й ( о к о н с т р у к ц и и ) , к р е п к и й , н е г и б к и й stiffn e ss п — ж есткость, устойчивость F o r th is p u ip o s e d e e p a n d ^ / ^ f o u n d a t i o n s a r e u s u a lly r e q u ir e d . T h e stiffn ess o f th e fr a m in g s y s te m p r e v e n te d th e c o lla p s e o f t h e o ld b u ild in g . 14 . h e a v e [ h i:v ] n — в з д у в а н и е , в с п у ч и в а н и е г р у н т а ; п у ­ чение fr o st h e a v e — п у ч е н и е ( г р у н т а ) п р и з а м е р з а н и и T h e m o d e l f o r p r e d ic tin g th e h e a v e o f t h e s o il w a s b a s e d o n th e v a r ia tio n o f p r e s s u r e s w ith d e p th . F ro st h e a v e is a f u n d a m e n t a l p r o c e s s d o m i n a t i n g o v e r s o il s u r f a c e s in c o ld r e g io n s . 15. s c o u r [ 's k a u a ] v — р а з м ы в , п о д м ы в ; р а з м ы в а т ь , п о д ­ м ы вать fo u n d a tio n s c o u r — р а з м ы в ф у н д а м е н т а ( о с н о в а н и я ) E r o s io n a n d s c o u r r e d u c e t h e e m b e d m e n t o f t h e f o u n d a tio n in to t h e s o il. T h e b r id g e f a ilu r e w a s t h e d ir e c t r e s u lt o f th e f o u n d a tio n s c o u r d u e t o flo o d in g . 16. sw e ll v — н а б у х а т ь , р а з б у х а т ь , в с п у ч и в а т ь с я , в з д у в а т ь с я sw e llin g п — в с п у ч и в а н и е , в ы п у к л о с т ь , р а з б у х а н и е I f t h e s o il b e c o m e s s a t u r a t e d a n d s w e lls , u p h e a v a l o f t h e f o u n d a tio n c a n o c c u r . F o u n d a t i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d o n th e s e c la y s a r e s u b je c te d t o la r g e u p lif tin g f o r c e s c a u s e d b y th e sw ellin g. 216 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 17. sh rin k Lfrigk] v — д а в а т ь у с а д к у , у с ы х а т ь , с ж и м а т ь с я s h r in k a g e [ ' j i i r k i c t j ] п— усадка, усуш ка, сж и м ан и е U n le s s k e p t c o n tin u a lly w e t, m o d e r n c o n c r e te s h a rd e n in g . S o il shrinkage is t h e shrink a f te r p ro c e s s o f s o il m a te ria l c o n t r a c tin g t o a le s s e r v o lu m e , w ith t h e lo ss o f w a te r o n d ry in g . 18. c r a c k [kraek ] n v — трещ и н а; трескаться, р аскалы ваться T h is re s u lte d in a n in c re a s e in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f u n d e rs id e o f t h e b e a m . T h e w in d o w 19. ra ft [ra :ft] n— cracked d o w n cracks in th e th e m id d le . сп лош н ой ф ундам ент, оп орная плита F u r th e r c o n s tr u c tio n w as s ta rte d o n ly a fte r th e c u rin g o f the raft h a d b e e n fu lly d o n e . 20 . d is to r t [d is tD:t] v — п е р е к а ш и в а т ь ( с я ) , д е ф о р м и р о ­ ваться) M e ta l distorts u n d e r stre ss. 2 . R ea d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g in tern a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir tra n scrip tio n s in th e d ictio n a ry i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p a rt o f s p e e c h . n, adv, adj, g e o t e c h n i c a l adj, adj, d i a m e t e r n, p r i n c i p l e n, c o l l a p s e n, r e c o m m e n d v, f o r m n, g e o lo g y n, m a c h i n e n, re s id e n tia l adj, t o t a l adj, n o r m a lly adv, s e a s o n a l adj, a lte r n a tiv e n adj. C a te g o r y s tr u c tu r a lly s t a b i l i z e v, a d e q u a t e s tr a tu m n, ra re 3 . M a tc h th e p a irs o f s y n o n y m s from A an d В an d tr a n s la te th em . A В 1 n g id a. b e a n n g c a p a c ity 2. e x p a n d b . tra n s fe r UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONSOFBUILDINGS 217 3. c o lu m n c. s h r in k a g e 4 . r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te la y e r d . s tif f 5 . s u b s id e n c e e . p ile 6. t r a n s m it f. h e a v e 7. b a s e g . sw e ll 8. g ro u n d h . r a ft 9 . lo a d c a p a c ity i. f o u n d a t i o n 10. a s u p p o r tin g s tr u c tu r e j. s e ttle m e n t 11. c o m p r e s s io n k . s o il 12. b u lg in g o u t l. p i e r 4. M a t c h th e verb o n th e le ft w ith a su ita b le ite m o n th e r ig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1. s c o u r a . a p ile 2. p la c e b. a c o n c re te p a d 3. e m b e d c . u n d e r s tr e s s 4. p o u r d . th e g ro u n d 5. fo rm e. a b eam 6. t r a n s f e r f. s e t t l e m e n t 7 . s ta b iliz e g . c o n c r e t e in la y e rs 8 . e x p e r ie n c e h. c ra c k s 9 . d r iv e i. a f o u n d a t i o n 10. d is t o r t j. a lo a d 5. M a k e t h e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o m p le te b y t r a n s la tin g t h e w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s in b r a c k e ts. 1. F ie ld te s ts p r o v id e th e m o s t re lia b le r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e a x ia l l o a d a p p l i e d t o а ( ф у н д а м е н т г л у б о к о г о з а л о ж е н и я ) a n d t h e r e s u ltin g a x ia l m o v e m e n t. 2 . I n d i c a t i o n s o f ( н е р а в н о м е р н а я о с а д к а ) a r e v e r tic a l d is to r tio n o r c r a c k in g o f m a s o n r y w a lls, w a r p e d i n t e r i o r a n d e x t e r i o r o p e n in g s , s lo p e d f lo o r s , a n d s tic k in g d o o r s a n d w in d o w s . 3. M i n o r ( т р е щ и н ы ) a r e s t r u c tu r a lly h a r m f u l o n ly i f l o n g - t e r m m o is tu r e le a k a g e th r o u g h t h e ( т р е щ и н ы ) a d v e r s e ly 218[ Английский язы к для студентов строительных специальностей a ffe c ts b u ild in g e le m e n ts . 4 . I f th e f o u n d a tio n e m b e d m e n t in t o th e g r o u n d is n o t s u f f ic ie n t to a c c o u n t f o r e r o s io n a n d ( р а з м ы в ) t h a t m a y o c c u r o v e r t h e life o f th e b u ild in g , th e b u ild in g is v u ln e r a b le t o c o lla p s e u n d e r d e s ig n f lo o d a n d w in d c o n d itio n s . 5 . A d e e p f o u n d a tio n is u s e d t o tr a n s f e r a lo a d f r o m a s t r u c tu r e th r o u g h a n u p p e r w e a k ( г р у н т о в ы й с л о й ) t o a s tr o n g e r a n d d e e p e r ( г р у н т о ­ в ы й с л о й ) . 6. T a ll b u ild in g s o f te n r e s t o n m a n y s m a ll ( к е с с о н ­ н ы е св а и ). 7. А (ф у н д а м е н т н а е с т е с т в е н н о м о с н о в а н и и ) s u p p o r ts th e w e ig h t ( lo a d ) f r o m t h e e x te r io r o r f o u n d a t i o n w a lls. 8. I n c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite s w h e r e s e ttle m e n t is n o t a p r o b le m , ( ф у н ­ д а м е н т ы м е л к о г о з а л о ж е н и я ) p r o v id e t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l f o u n d a tio n sy ste m s. 9 . T h e u ltim a te o b je c tiv e o f a n y (з а б и т а я с в а я ) is t o c a r r y s o m e k in d o f lo a d c o m in g f r o m a v a r ie ty o f so u r c e s . 10. T h e tw o m o s t i m p o r ta n t d e s ig n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e s a re th e s tr e n g th a n d (ж е с т к о с т ь ) . 6. R e a d a n d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g g ro u p s o f s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o t h e w o rd s in it a lic s w h ich c a n fu n c tio n a s a n o u n a n d a verb w ith th e s a m e fo r m . T h e y c a n h a v e sim ila r o r d iffe r e n t m e a n in g s. L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . 1. a . T h e u n iv e r s ity h a s b e e n f a m o u s s in c e its foundation. b . T h e w o r k e r s a r e la y in g t h e foundation o f a n e w b u ild in g . c . T h is foundation p ro v id e s m o n e y f o r m e d ic a l re s e a r c h . 2 . a. T h e y u s u a lly pile th e b o x e s o n th e pile o f b o o k s in b. T h e re w as a n e a t c. T h e pile w a s ta b le . th e c o m e r o f th e r o o m . d r iv e n in to th e g r o u n d . 3 . a. T h e s w e a te r w ill shrink w h e n w ash ed . shrink. shrink slig h tly . settlement. b . A b a d h a r v e s t c a u s e d t h e f a r m e r ’s in c o m e to c . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s c a u s e th e c o n c r e te to 4 . a . T h e tw o s id e s h a v e a t la s t r e a c h e d a b. Settlement is t h e c o m m o n c a u s e o f f o u n d a t i o n p r o b le m s . settlement. transfer v e r tic a l lo a d s. c . T h e r e a r e s o m e e m p ty la n d s a w a itin g 5 . a . T h is ty p e o f p a n e ls d o e s n o t transfer t o t h e M o s c o w o ffic e . transfer ta k e s p la c e f r o m t h e s la b s t o th e b. S he ask ed fo r a c. T h e lo a d b eam s. 219 UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS 7. D e fin e p a rts o f sp e e c h . T ra n sla te th e w o rd s o f th e sa m e r o o t. 1. f o u n d — f o u n d e r — f o u n d a t i o n — f o u n d a tio n a l; 2. b u ild — re b u ild — b u ild a b le — b u ild e r — b u ild in g ; 3. d iffe r — d iffe re n c e — d iffe re n t — in d iffe re n t — d iffe re n tly — d iffe re n tn e s s — d iffe re n tia b le — d iffe re n tia b ility — d iffe re n tia l — d iffe re n tia lly — d iffe re n tia te — d iffe re n tia tio n ; 4 . s tr u c tu r e — s tr u c t u r a l — s tr u c tu r a lly — s tr u c tu r a liz e — stru c tu ra lis m ; 5. s u p p o r t — s u p p o r ta b le — s u p p o r ta b ility — s u p p o r ta b ly — s u p p o r te r — s u p p o rtiv e — s u p p o rtiv e ly — s u p p o rtiv e n e s s ; 6. r e in fo rc e — r e in fo rc e a b le — re in f o r c e m e n t — re in fo rc e r; 7. w o o d — w o o d e n — w o o d e n ly — w o o d e n n e s s — w o o d y ; 8. p la c e — re p la c e — d is p la c e — p e a c e a b le — p l a c e r — p la c e m e n t; 9. e x c a v a te — e x c a v a tio n — ex c a v a to r; 10. o p e r a t e — o p e r a t i o n — o p e r a t i o n a l — o p e r a tio n a lly — o p e ra tiv e — in o p e ra tiv e — o p e r a to r . SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8. sen ten ces. a) R e a d a n d t r a n s la te th e fo llo w in g ty p e s o f c o n d itio n a l R e a l c o n d itio n a ls Example I f h e has t im e , h e will do t h i s в р е м я , о н сделает э т у р а б о т у . w o rk . — Е с л и у н е г о будет 1. I f a s te e l g i l d e r p r o v id e d i n a s tr u c tu r e is f o u n d t o b e w e a k a n d fle x ib le , it w ill b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y s u ita b le m e a n s . 2 . I f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a b u ild in g y ie ld s a n d r a p tu r e s t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e n little w ill b e d o n e t o im p ro v e th e s itu a tio n . 3. I f th e b o rin g m a c h in e 220I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей is n o t e q u ip p e d w ith a r o c k a u g e r , th e n s o c k e tin g o f th e h a r d ro c k la y e r w ill b e d o n e w ith t h e h e lp o f a h e a v y c h is e l w h ic h is d r o p p e d f r o m a h e ig h t o f a b o u t 1.5 m e tr e s b y s u s p e n d in g it f r o m a t r i p o d s ta n d a t t a c h e d t o a w in c h c r a n e . 4 . I f th e s e b u ild in g s d o n o t h a v e b a s e m e n ts in c o ld c lim a te s , i n s u la te d c o n c r e te o r m a s o n r y fro s t w a lls w ill b e p l a c e d u n d e r a ll e x te r io r n o n b e a r in g w a lls t o k e e p f r o s t f r o m u n d e r th e f lo o r sla b s. 5. I f a c o l u m n a c tin g a s a lo a d b e a n n g m e m b e r i n a b u ild in g is f o u n d to b e in a d e q u a te , it w ill b e m a d e safe b y p ro v id in g r e in f o r c e m e n ts o r b y in tr o d u c in g in te r m e d ia te c o lu m n s . b ) U n r e a l c o n d itio n a ls refe r r in g to th e p r e se n t an d fu tu re Example I f h e had tim e , h e would do th is в р е м я , о н бы сделал э т у р а б о т у . w o rk . — Е с л и бы у него было 1. I f th e b e a m s w e re s p a c e d m o r e d is ta n c e a p a r t, th e r e w o u ld b e a d a n g e r o f th e c o n c r e te fillin g n o t a c tin g m o n o lith ic a lly w ith t h e b e a m , r e s u ltin g in th e fa ilu re o f th e fo u n d a tio n . 2. I f th e f o u n d a tio n la y o u t w e re p a r tly b u ilt u p o f b e a m a n d c o lu m n c o n s tr u c tio n , stra ig h t b a r s w o u ld b e p r o v id e d b o t h a t t o p a n d b o t t o m o f t h e b e a m s . 3. I f th e y u s e d t h e rig h t w a te r - c e m e n t r a tio , th e y w o u ld p r o d u c e c o n c r e te o f h ig h s tr e n g th a n d d u r a b ility . 4 . I f th e n a tu r e o f so il a n d th e lo a d in g c o n d itio n s w e re u n if o r m o v e r th e e n tir e s ite o f th e b u ild in g , t h e d is tr ib u tio n o f p r e s s u r e c o u l d b e sa fe ly a s s u m e d t o b e u n if o r m a n d t h e d a n g e r o f u n e q u a l s e t t l e m e n t w o u ld b e m in im iz e d . 5. I f a d e s ig n c a lle d f o r t h e u se o f a c r a n e , it w o u ld b e s tr o n g ly d e s ir a b le t h a t th e lo a d s s h o u ld b e o f th e s a m e w e ig h t. c ) U n r e a l c o n d itio n a ls r e fe r r in g to th e p a st Example had had tim e y e s te r d a y , h e would have done th is w o rk . Е с л и бы у н е г о в ч е р а было в р е м я , о н бы сделал э т у р а б о т у . I f he — 1. I f th e f o u n d a tio n h a d n o t b e e n ta k e n d e e p in s id e t h e g r o u n d , r a in w a te r w o u ld n o t h a v e s c o u r e d t h e so il a b o v e t h e f o u n d a tio n . UNIT10.FOUNDATIONSOFBUILDINGS 221 2. I f th e f o u n d a tio n tre n c h e s h a d b e e n d u g to d e p th g re a te r th a n s h o w n o n t h e d r a w in g o r a s r e q u ir e d b y t h e c o m p e t e n t a u th o r ity , n o e a r th fillin g w o u ld h a v e b e e n a llo w e d in b r in g in g th e f o u n d a tio n b e d to th e p r o p e r le v e l. 3. I f th e m a n a g e m e n t o f th e p l a n t h a d a p p lie d e ffe c tiv e m e th o d s la st y e a r, th e p r o d u c tio n level w o u ld h a v e c e r ta in ly in c r e a s e d . 4. I f y o u h a d h a d m o r e tim e a t y o u r d is p o s a l la s t w e e k , th e y w o u ld h a v e c e r ta in ly a s k e d y o u t o ta k e p a r t in t h a t w o rk . 5. I f s u f f ic ie n t d a ta h a d b e e n c o lle c te d , a m o r e d e f in ite s o lu tio n c o u l d h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d . 9 . R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e follow in g c o n d itio n a l s e n te n c e s payin g a tte n tio n to in v e r sio n . E x a m p le Had would do th is бы сделал э т у р а б о т у . h e tim e , he врем я, о н w o rk . — Е с л и бы у него было 1. H a d th e y h e lp e d u s , th e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m w o u ld h a v e b e e n re a liz e d . 2. W e r e I in t h e c ity , I w o u ld a t t e n d h is l e c tu r e . 3. H a d h e p o in te d o u t a ll th e d ra w b a c k s , w e w o u ld h a v e f o u n d th e w a y s to so lv e th e p r o b le m . 4 . H a d h e jo i n e d o u r e x p e d itio n , h e c o u ld h a v e le a r n t m a n y in te r e s tin g th in g s . 5. S h o u ld t h e g u e s ts c o m e e a r lie r , n o o n e w ill b e h e r e to g r e e t th e m . 1 0 . M a t c h th e b e g in n in g s and en d in g s. l.I flg e t a p a y r is e , 2 .1 would give it back 3. If I were a manager, 4. If it weren’t so cold, 5 If you don’t pay the bill, 6. If I don’ t have time to finish today, 7. If he hadn’t worked so hard, a) if I found a wallet. b) I’ll take you out for dinner. c) he wouldn’t have passed his exams. d) would you want to? e) I will do it tomorrow. f) I could take a photo. g) I could have contacted you 222 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 8. If I had had my cell phone yesterday h) I would go for a walk. 9 If you could live to be 100 i) you will get a warning letter. I would give everybody ten weeks’ holiday. 10. If I had a camera, 1 1 . W r ite c o n d itio n a l s e n t e n c e s to m a tc h t h e s e s itu a tio n s . Example T h a t b o o k is to o e x p e n s iv e . I ’m n o t g o in g t o b u y it. — I f th e book weren 7 so e x p e n s iv e , I would buy it. S h e d i d n ’t p a s s th e e x a m . S h e d i d n ’t g o t o u n iv e r s ity . — I f sh e had passed th e e x a m , sh e would have gone t o u n iv e r s ity . 1. I t ’s r a in in g . W e c a n ’t h a v e lu n c h in t h e g a r d e n . 2 . Y o u w e n t f o r a jo b in te rv ie w . Y o u w e re la te . Y o u d i d n ’t g e t th e jo b . 3. I ’m in a h u r r y . I w o n ’t s ta y t o d in n e r . 4 . H e r f a t h e r g a v e h e r s o m e m o n e y . S h e w a s a b le t o b u y a h o u s e . 5. I h a v e t o w o r k t o m o r r o w e v e n in g , s o I c a n ’t m e e t y o u 6 . S h e is n o t i n y o u r p o s itio n . S h e i s n ’t a b le t o a d v is e y o u . 7. P a u l w e n t o n h o lid a y t o P a ris . H e m e t M a r y , h is w ife . 8. S a n d r a w a lk e d t o w a lk i n th e r a in . S h e g o t w e t. 9. W e d o n ’t v isit y o u v e ry o f t e n b e c a u s e y o u liv e s o f a r a w a y . 10. H e ’s n o t a m illio n a ir e . H e w o n ’t b u y y o u a p a la c e . 1 2 . P u t in th e c o r r e c t v erb fo rm . M a k e e a c h s e n t e n c e r e fe r to: a) th e p r e s e n t o r th e fu tu r e , an d b ) th e p a s t . a ) 1. W h e n y o u ___________ (g o ) t o P a r is , w ill y o u s e e N ic o le ? 2. I f y o u ________ (liv e ) i n P a r is , y o u ____________( b e c o m e ) b o r e d o f a ll th e b e a u tif u l w in e a n d f o o d ? 3. Y o u a lw a y s d riv e to o fa st a n d t h e p o l i c e ___________ ( a r r e s t) y o u i f t h e y ____________ ( s e e ) y o u . 4. T h e e x a m w a s v e ry d if f ic u lt, s o i t ’s u n lik e ly n o w , b u t i f R i c h a r d ___________(p a s s ), h e ___________ (g o ) t o u n iv e rsity . 5. I f I ___________ UNIT10. FOUNDATIONSOFBUILDINGS 223 ( b e ) b e t t e r q u a lifie d , I ___________ (a p p ly ) fo r th e jo b . 6. I f y o u (h a v e ) lo n g e r le g s, y o u ___________ (b e a b le to ) r u n faster. b) 1. I f m y c o m p u t e r _________ ( n o t c r u s h ) y e s te r d a y , I ___________ ( f in is h ) m y w o rk . 2 . W e ____________(g e t) b e t t e r t ic k e ts f o r t h e c o n c e r t i f w e ___________ ( b o o k ) e a rlie r. 3. Y o u ____________ (w in ) i f y o u ________ ( r u n ) a b i t fa s te r. 4. I f y o u ____________( le a r n ) I ta lia n a t s c h o o l, s h e ____________ ( e n jo y ) h e r la s t h o lid a y t o Ita ly m o re . 5. I f t h e y ___________ ( n o t c u t) o f f th e e le c tr ic ity y e s te rd a y , I ___________ (fin is h ) m y w o rk . 6. I f y o u r e m e m b e r t h e m a p , w e ___________ ( n o t g e t lo st). SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. Before you read Text 10A "Foundations”, discuss tbe following questions with yonr groupmates or teacher. a) W h a t is a fo u n d a tio n ? b ) W h a t ty p e s o f f o u n d a tio n s d o y o u k n o w ? c ) W h a t is a s h a llo w fo u n d a tio n ? d ) W h a t ty p e s o f s h a llo w fo u n d a tio n s d o y o u k n o w ? e) W h a t is a d e e p f o u n d a t i o n u s e d fo r? f) W h a t ty p e s o f d e e p fo u n d a tio n s d o y o u k n o w ? g ) W h o d e s ig n s f o u n d a tio n s ? h ) W h a t a s p e c ts s h o u ld b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t w h e n d e s ig n in g a fo u n d a tio n ? 224I 14. Английский яэы кдля студентов строительных специальностей R e a d T e x t 1 0 А an d s a y i f y o u a r e rig h t o r w r o n g . • TEXT 10A Foundations A f o u n d a tio n is a s tr u c tu r e t h a t tr a n s f e r s lo a d s t o t h e e a r th . F o u n d a tio n s a r e g e n e r a lly b r o k e n in to tw o c a te g o r ie s : s h a llo w f o u n d a tio n s a n d d e e p f o u n d a tio n s . A sh a llo w f o u n d a tio n is u s u a lly e m b e d d e d a m e t e r o r s o in to so il. O n e c o m m o n ty p e is t h e s p r e a d fo o tin g w h ic h c o n s is ts o f p a d s o f c o n c r e te o r o t h e r m a te r ia ls w h ic h e x te n d b e lo w t h e f r o s t lin e a n d tra n sfe r th e w e ig h t fr o m w alls a n d c o lu m n s to th e so il o r b e d ro c k . A n o t h e r c o m m o n ty p e is t h e s l a b - o n - g r a d e f o u n d a t i o n w h e r e th e w e ig h t o f t h e b u ild in g is tr a n s f e r r e d to t h e so il t h r o u g h a c o n c r e t e sla b p la c e d a t th e s u rfa c e . A d e e p f o u n d a t i o n is u s e d t o tr a n s f e r a lo a d f r o m a s t r u c tu r e t h r o u g h a n u p p e r w e a k la y e r o f so il t o a s tr o n g e r d e e p e r la y e r o f s o il. T h e r e a r e d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f d e e p f o u n d a tio n s in c lu d in g h e lic a l p ile s , im p a c t d r iv e n p ile s , c a is s o n s , p ie r s , a n d e a r t h s ta b iliz e d c o lu m n s T h e n a m in g c o n v e n tio n s f o r d iffe re n t ty p e s o f fo u n d a tio n s v a ry a m o n g d iffe re n t e n g in e e rs . H is to ric a lly , p ile s w e re w o o d , la te r s te e l, r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , a n d p r e - t e n s i o n e d c o n c r e te . F o u n d a tio n s a r e d e s ig n e d to have a n a d e q u a te lo a d c a p a c ity w ith l im ite d s e t t l e m e n t b y a g e o te c h n ic a l e n g in e e r, a n d th e f o u n d a t i o n i t s e l f is d e s ig n e d s tru c tu ra lly b y a s tru c tu ra l engineer. T h e p r im a r y desig n c o n c e r n s are s e ttle m e n t a n d b e a rin g Shallow fo u n d a tio n s o f a c a p a c ity . W h e n c o n s id e r in g h o u se v e rsu s th e d e e p f o u n d a tio n s o f a sk y s c ra p e r. s e ttle m e n t, to ta l s e ttle m e n t a n d d iffe re n tia l s e ttle m e n t a re UNIT10. FOUNDATIONSDFBUILDINGS 225 n o r m a lly c o n s id e r e d . D if f e r e n tia l s e ttle m e n t is w h e n o n e p a r t o f a f o u n d a tio n s e ttle s m o r e th a n a n o t h e r p a r t. T h is c a n c a u s e p ro b le m s t o t h e s tr u c tu r e t h e f o u n d a t i o n is s u p p o r tin g . I t is n e c e s s a r y t h a t a f o u n d a t i o n is n o t lo a d e d b e y o n d its b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o r th e f o u n d a tio n w ill fail. O t h e r d e s ig n c o n s id e r a tio n s in c lu d e s c o u r a n d f r o s t h e a v e . S c o u r is w h e n flo w in g w a te r r e m o v e s s u p p o r tin g so il f r o m a r o u n d a f o u n d a t i o n ( lik e a p i e r s u p p o r tin g a b r id g e o v e r a riv e r ) . F r o s t h e a v e o c c u r s w h e n w a te r i n th e g r o u n d f r e e z e s t o f o r m ic e le n se s. C h a n g e s in so il m o is tu r e c a n c a u s e e x p a n s iv e c la y t o s w e ll a n d s h r in k . T h is s w e llin g c a n v a r y a c r o s s th e f o o tin g d u e t o s e a s o n a l c h a n g e s o r th e effe c ts o f v e g e ta tio n r e m o v in g m o is tu re . T h e v a ria tio n in sw e ll c a n c a u s e t h e so il t o d is to r t, c r a c k in g t h e s tr u c tu r e o v e r it. T h is is a p a r tic u la r p r o b le m f o r h o u s e fo o tin g s in s e m i- a r id c lim a te s s u c h a s S o u t h A u s tr a lia , S o u th w e s te r n U S , T u r k e y , I s r a e l, I r a n a n d S o u th A fric a w h e re w e t w in te rs a re fo llo w e d b y h o t d ry su m m e rs . R a f t sla b s w ith in h e r e n t stiffn e s s h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d i n A u s tr a lia w ith c a p a b ilitie s to r e sist th is m o v e m e n t. W h e n s tr u c tu r e s a r e b u ilt m a r e a s o f p e r m a f r o s t, s p e c ia l c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u s t b e g iv e n t o th e th e r m a l e f f e c t th e s tr u c tu r e w ill h a v e o n th e p e r m a f r o s t. G e n e r a lly , th e s tr u c tu r e is d e s ig n e d in a w a y t h a t trie s to p r e v e n t t h e p e rm a fro s t f ro m m e ltin g . 1 5 . F in d in T e x t 1 0 A th e p ara g ra p h sa y in g ab o u t th e in flu e n c e o f so il o n fo u n d a tio n s and tr a n sla te it in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p a ra g ra p h s 5 —6 . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e fe r e n c e s . a) This c a n c a u s e p r o b le m s t o th e s tr u c tu r e t h e f o u n d a t i o n is su p p o r tin g . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n 8 Зак 312 this r e f e r to ? 226 [ Английский языкдля студентов строительных специальностей b ) is n o t lo a d e d b e y o n d W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n c) Other d e s ig n c o n s id e r a tio n s in c lu d e W h a t d o e s th e a d je c tiv e d) This its b e a r in g c a p a c ity its r e f e r t o ? other re fe r to ? s w e llin g c a n v a r y a c r o s s th e f o o tin g d u e to s e a s o n a l changes W h a t d o e s th e d e m o n s tr a tiv e a d je c tiv e e) c r a c k in g th e s tr u c tu r e o v e r it. it r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n this re fe r to ? f) R a ft sla b s w ith in h e r e n t stiffn e ss h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d in A u s tr a lia w ith c a p a b ilitie s t o re sist this m o v e m e n t. this r e f e r to ? W h a t d o e s th e d e m o n s tr a tiv e a d je c tiv e 1 8 . U n d e r lin e o r m ark th e m a in id e a s o f T e x t 1 0 A an d r e te ll it in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 1 0 B “ F o u n d a tio n s o f R e sid e n tia l an d In d u str ia l B u ild in g s ” a n d tr y t o u n d e r sta n d w h a t it is a b o u t a n d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is a lr e a d y k n ow n to y o u . • TEXT 10B Foundations o f re sid e n tia l and in d u s tria l b u ild in gs T h e f o u n d a tio n s in r e s id e n tia l a n d in d u s tr ia l b u ild in g s s u p p o r t c o n s id e r a b ly h e a v y lo a d s . F lo o r lo a d in g s r a n g e f r o m 4 5 0 t o 1 ,5 0 0 k ilo g ra m s p e r s q u a r e m e tr e , a n d th e fu ll r a n g e o f f o u n d a t i o n ty p e s is u se d f o r th e m S p r e a d fo o tin g s a r e u s e d , a s a r e p ile f o u n d a tio n s , w h ic h a r e o f tw o ty p e s , b e a r in g a n d f r ic tio n . A b e a r in g p ile is a d e v ic e t o t r a n s m it t h e lo a d o f th e b u ild in g t h r o u g h a la y e r o f s o il t o o w e a k t o ta k e t h e lo a d t o a s tr o n g e r la y e r o f so il s o m e d is ta n c e u n d e r g r o u n d ; t h e p ile a c ts a s a c o l u m n t o c a rry t h e lo a d d o w n t o th e b e a rin g s tra tu m . S o lid b e a rin g p ile s w e re o rig in a lly m a d e o f tim b e r , w h ic h is r a r e to d a y ; m o r e c o m m o n l y th e y a re m a d e o f p r e c a s t c o n c r e te , a n d s o m e tim e s s te e l H -p ile s a re u s e d . T h e p ile l e n g th m a y b e a m a x im u m o f a b o u t 6 0 m e tr e s b u t is u s u a lly m u c h le ss. T h e p ile s a r e p u t in p la c e b y d riv in g t h e m in to t h e g r o u n d w ith la ig e m e c h a n ic a l h a m m e rs . H o llo w ste e l p i p e s a re a ls o d riv e n , a n d th e in te n o r s a re e x c a v a te d a n d fille d w ith c o n c r e te t o f o rm b e a r in g p ile s ; s o m e tim e s th e p i p e is w ith d r a w n a s th e c o n c r e t e is p o u r e d . A n a lte r n a tiv e t o th e b e a r in g p ile is th e c a is s o n . A r o u n d h o le is d u g t o a b e a r i n g s tr a tu m w ith a d rillin g m a c h i n e a n d t e m p o r a r ily s u p p o r te d b y a s te e l c y lin d r ic a l sh e ll. T h e h o le is th e n fille d w ith c o n c r e t e p o u r e d a r o u n d a c a g e o f r e in f o r c in g b a rs ; a n d t h e s te e l s h e ll m a y o r m a y n o t b e le ft in p la c e , d e p e n d in g o n t h e s u r r o u n d in g so il. T h e d i a m e t e r o f c a is s o n s v a rie s f ro m o n e t o t h r e e m e tre s . T h e f r ic tio n p ile o f w o o d o r c o n c r e te is d riv e n in t o so ft so il w h e re t h e r e is n o h a r d e r s tr a tu m fo r b e a n n g b e n e a t h t h e site . T h e b u i ld in g lo a d is s u p p o r te d b y th e s u rfa c e fr ic tio n b e tw e e n th e p ile a n d t h e s o il. W h e n th e so il is so s o ft t h a t e v e n fric tio n p ile s w ill n o t s u p p o r t th e b u ild in g lo a d , th e fin a l o p tio n is th e u se o f a f lo a tin g f o u n d a tio n , m a k in g th e b u ild in g like a b o a t th a t o b e y s A r c h im e d e s ’ p r in c ip le — it is b u o y e d u p b y th e w e ig h t o f th e e a r t h d is p la c e d in c r e a tin g t h e fo u n d a tio n . F lo a tin g f o u n d a tio n s c o n s is t o f fla t r e in fo rc e d c o n c r e te sla b s o r m a ts o r o f r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e tu b s w ith w a lls t u r n e d u p a r o u n d t h e e d g e o f t h e m a t t o c r e a te a l a rg e r v o lu m e . I f th e s e bu ild in g s d o n o t ha v e b a s e m e n ts in c o ld c lim a te s, in su la te d c o n c r e te o r m a s o n r y fro s t w a lls a re p l a c e d u n d e r a ll e x t e r io r n o n b e a r i n g w a lls t o k e e p fr o s t f r o m u n d e r t h e f l o o r s la b s . R e in fo rc e d c o n c re te fo u n d a tio n w alls fo r b a s e m e n ts m u st b e c a re fu lly b r a c e d t o re s is t la te ra l e a r t h p re s s u re s . T h e s e w a lls m a y b e b u ilt in e x c a v a tio n s , p o u r e d in to w o o d e n fo rm s. S o m e tim e s a w all is c re a te d b y d riv in g in te rlo c k in g ste e l s h e e t p ilin g in to t h e g ro u n d , e x c a v a tin g o n t h e b a s e m e n t s id e , a n d p o u n n g a c o n c r e t e w a ll a g a in s t it. 228[Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей D e e p e r f o u n d a tio n w a lls c a n a ls o b e b u ilt b y th e s lu r r y w all m e t h o d , in w h ic h a l in e a r s e r ie s o f c lo s e ly s p a c e d c a is s o n - lik e h o le s a r e s u c c e s s iv e ly d r ille d , f ille d w ith c o n c r e te , a n d a llo w e d to h a rd e n , th e sp a c e s b e tw e e n a re e x c a v a te d b y sp e c ia l cla m sh e ll b u c k e ts a n d a lso f ille d w ith c o n c r e te . D u r in g th e e x c a v a tio n a n d d r illin g o p e r a tio n s th e h o le s a re fille d w ith a h ig h - d e n s ity liq u id slu rry w h ic h b r a c e s th e e x c a v a tio n a g a in s t c o lla p s e b u t still p e r m its e x tr a c tio n o f e x c a v a te d m a te ria l. F in a lly , t h e b a s e m e n t is d u g a d jo in in g th e w a ll, a n d th e w all is b r a c e d a g a in s t e a r th p re s s u re . 2 0 . G iv e a b r ie f o v e r v ie w o f th e str u c tu r e an d c o n t e n t s o f T ex t1 0 B . 2 1 . R e la te e a c h h e a d in g to th e co r r e sp o n d in g p a r a g r a p h o f T ex t 10B . a ) C a is s o n s . b ) T h e s lu r r y w a ll m e th o d . c ) B e a r in g p ile s. d ) R e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te f o u n d a tio n w alls. e ) S o m e s p e c ific fe a tu re s o f f o u n d a tio n s . f) F l o a tin g f o u n d a tio n s . 2 2 . R e a d T e x t 1 0 C “ D e e p F o u n d a tio n s ” an d a n sw e r th e q u e stio n s. D is c u s s yo u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a) W h a t is th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a d e e p f o u n d a tio n a n d a sh a llo w f o u n d a tio n ? b ) W h y is a d e e p f o u n d a t i o n p r e f e r r e d o v e r a s h a l l o w f o u n d a tio n ? c ) W h a t a r e t h e o t h e r n a m e s o f a d e e p f o u n d a tio n ? d ) W h a t a r e d riv e n f o u n d a tio n s c h a r a c te r iz e d b y ? e ) W h a t is th e s tr u c tu r e o f p ile f o u n d a tio n sy ste m s? f) H o w a re b o r in g t e c h n iq u e s e m p lo y e d f o r d r ille d p ile s ? g) W h a t d o d r y b o r in g m e th o d s c o n s is t in ? h) W h a t is sp e c if ic o f w e t b o r in g ? UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONSOFBUILDINGS 229 • TEXT IOC Deep Foundations A d e e p f o u n d a t i o n is a t y p e o f f o u n d a t i o n d i s tin g u is h e d fro m sh a llo w f o u n d a tio n s b y th e d e p th t h e y a re e m b e d d e d i n to th e g ro u n d . T h e re a re m a n y r e a s o n s a g e o te c h n ic a l e n g in e e r w o u ld re c o m m e n d a d e e p f o u n d a t i o n o v e r a s h a llo w f o u n d a t i o n , b u t s o m e o f t h e c o m m o n r e a s o n s a re v e ry la rg e d e s ig n l o a d s , a p o o r s o il a t s h a llo w d e p th , o r s ite c o n s tr a in ts (lik e p r o p e r ty lin e s ). T h e r e a r e d if f e r e n t te rm s u s e d t o d e s c rib e d iffe re n t ty p e s o f d e e p fo u n d a tio n s in c lu d in g p ile s , d rille d s h a fts , c a is s o n s a n d p ie rs . T h e n a m in g c o n v e n tio n s m a y v a ry b e t w e e n e n g i n e e r i n g d i s c i p l i n e s a n d firm s . D eep f o u n d a tio n s c a n b e m a d e o u t o f t im b e r , s te e l, re in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e a n d p r e - t e n s i o n e d c o n c r e te . D e e p fo u n d a tio n s c a n b e in s ta lle d b y e ith e r d riv in g th e m in to th e g r o u n d o r d r illin g a s h a f t a n d fillin g it w ith c o n c r e t e , m a s s o r re in f o r c e d . P r e fa b ric a te d p ile s a re d riv e n in to th e g r o u n d u s in g a p ile d riv e r. D r iv e n p i l e s a r e e i t h e r w o o d , r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , o r s te e l. W o o d e n p ile s a re m a d e f ro m tr u n k s o f ta ll tre e s . C o n c r e te p ile s a re a v a ila b le i n s q u a r e , o c ta g o n a l, a n d r o u n d c r o s s - s e c tio n s . T h e y a re re in f o r c e d w ith r e b a r a n d a re o f te n p r e s tre s s e d . S te e l p ile s a re e i t h e r p i p e p ile s o r s o m e s o r t o f b e a m s e c t i o n (lik e a n H - p ile ) . H isto ric a lly , w o o d p ile s w e re sp lic e d to g e th e r w h e n t h e d e sig n le n g th w a s t o o la rg e fo r a s in g le p ile ; t o d a y s p lic in g is c o m m o n w ith s te e l p ile s , th o u g h c o n c r e t e p ile s c a n b e s p lic e d w ith d iff ic u lty . D riv in g p ile s , a s o p p o s e d t o d r illin g s h a f ts , is a d v a n ta g e o u s b e c a u s e t h e s o il d is p la c e d b y d r iv in g t h e p i l e s c o m p r e s s e s t h e s u r r o u n d in g s o il, c a u s in g g r e a te r f r ic tio n a g a in s t t h e s id e s o f t h e p ile s , th u s in c r e a s in g t h e i r l o a d - b e a r in g c a p a c ity . F o u n d a t i o n s re ly in g o n d r iv e n p ile s o f t e n h a v e g r o u p s o f p ile s c o n n e c t e d b y a p ile c a p ( a la rg e c o n c r e t e b lo c k in t o w h i c h th e h e a d s o f th e p ile s a re e m b e d d e d ) t o d is trib u te lo a d s w h ic h a re la rg e r t h a n o n e p ile c a n b e a r . P ile c a p s a n d is o la te d p ile s a re ty p ic a lly 230I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o n n e c te d w ith g ra d e b e a m s t o tie th e fo u n d a tio n e le m e n ts to g e th e r; lig h te r s tru c tu r a l e le m e n ts b e a r o n th e g ra d e b e a m s w h ile h e a v ie r e le m e n ts b e a r d ire c tly o n th e p ile c a p . R o ta r y b o rin g t e c h n iq u e s o ffe r la ig e r d i a m e t e r p ile s t h a n a n y o th e r p ilin g m e th o d a n d p e r m it p ile c o n s tru c tio n th ro u g h p a rtic u la rly d e n s e o r h a rd s tra ta C o n s tr u c tio n m e th o d s d e p e n d o n th e g e o lo g y o f th e site, in p a r tic u la r , w h e th e r b o n n g is t o b e u n d e r ta k e n in d ry g r o u n d c o n d itio n s o r th r o u g h w a te r-lo g g e d b u t s ta b le s t r a ta , i.e. w e t b o n n g . B o rin g is d o n e u n til th e h a rd r o c k o r s o ft r o c k la y e r is re a c h e d in t h e c a s e o f e n d b e a n n g p iles. I f th e b o rin g m a c h in e is n o t e q u ip p e d w ith a ro c k a u g e r , t h e n s o c k e tin g o f th e h a r d r o c k la y e r is d o n e w ith t h e h e lp o f a h e a v y c h is e l w h ic h is d r o p p e d fr o m a h e ig h t o f a b o u t 1.5 m e tr e s b y s u s p e n d in g it fro m a t r i p o d s ta n d a tta c h e d t o a w in c h c ra n e . T h e s o c k e tin g is c a rrie d o u t u n til t h e d e s ire d d e p th w ith in th e r o c k la y e r h a s b e e n a tta in e d . T h e d e p th w ith in th e ro c k la y e r is c o n s id e r e d to b e e q u a l to th e d ia m e te r o f t h e p ile in h a rd r o c k la y e rs a n d is ta k e n t o b e e q u a l t o 2 .5 tim e s t h e d i a m e te r o f t h e p ile in s o ft ro c k lay ers. D r y b o r in g m e th o d s e m p lo y t h e u s e o f a te m p o r a r y c a s in g to s e a l t h e p ile b o re t h ro u g h w a te r-b e a rin g o r u n s ta b le s tra ta o v e rly in g s u ita b le s ta b le m a t e n a l . U p o n r e a c h in g t h e d e s ig n d e p t h , a r e in fo rc in g c a g e is i n tr o d u c e d , c o n c r e te is p o u r e d in th e b o r e a n d b r o u g h t u p t o t h e re q u ir e d le v e l. T h e c a s in g c a n b e w ith d r a w n o r le ft in situ . W e t b o r in g a ls o e m p lo y s a te m p o r a r y c a s in g t h r o u g h u n s ta b le g r o u n d a n d is u s e d w h e n t h e p ile b o r e c a n n o t b e s e a le d a g a in s t w a te r in g ress. B o n n g is th e n u n d e r ta k e n u s in g a d ig g in g b u c k e t to d rill t h r o u g h th e u n d e rly in g s o ils t o d e s ig n d e p th . T h e re in f o r c in g c a g e is lo w e re d in t o t h e b o r e a n d c o n c r e te is p la c e d b y a tr e m i e p ip e . UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS 231 SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKIN G 2 3 . l i s t e n t o th e T e x t “ F o u n d a tio n s o f L o w - R is e B u ild in g s’*. a ) A n sw e r th e q u e s tio n s th a t follow . 1. W h a t a r e th e c r ite r ia f o r f o u n d a t i o n s ta b ility ? 2 . W h y is it im p o r t a n t t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o t t o m b e b e lo w th e m a x im u m w i n t e r f r o s t le v e l? 3 . W h a t is t h e m a x im u m f r o s t d e p th ? 4 . W h a t a r e f o u n d a tio n s o f lo w - r is e b u ild in g s c h a r a c te r iz e d b y ? 5. W h a t m a te r ia ls c a n f o u n d a t i o n w a lls b e b u i l t o f? 6 . W h a t a r e t h e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n b r ic k s a n d c o n c r e te b lo c k s ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 1 0 A o f th e T e x t . L o o k u p t h e w o r d s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ic tio n a r y . c ) R e te ll d ie T e x t a b ou t so m e sp e c ific fe a tu r e s o f th e fou n d ation s o f lo w - r is e b u ild in g s. d ) T e ll y o u r g r o u p m a te s a b o u t fo u n d a t io n s b a s e d o n th e in fo r m a tio n t o b e c o lle c te d . 2 4 . l i s t e n to th e T e x t “ P ip e P ile s ” . a) A s y o u lis t e n , fill in th e c h a r t. The dnving of pipe piles The construction of pipe piles The protection o f pipe piles 232 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей The calculation o f the structural capacity o f pipe piles The areas in which pipe piles are used b) Check your answers with your groupmates and Tapescript 10B of the Text. Look up the words you do not know in the dictionary. c) Retell the Text about a steel driven pile foundation. UNIT 11 BUILDING THE WALLS SECTION 1 VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1 . R e a d an d m e m o r iz e th e a c t iv e v o c a b u la r y t o t h e t e x t “ B r ic k la y in g a n d C o n c r e t e B lo c k s ” a n d t r a n s la t e t h e g iv e n 1. la y (la id ) b r ic k s [ 'l e i ] — к л а с т ь к и р п и ч n — кладка кирпи ча n — к ам ен щ и к по кладке кирпи ча b rick w ork [ 'b r r k w 3 :k ] п — к и р п и ч н а я к л а д к а ( с о о р у ­ b rick la y in g [ 'b n k j e i i ) ] b r ic k la y e r [ 'Ь г ік ,1 е іэ ] ж ение) g a u g e d b rick w ork [ g e id jd ] — к л а д к а с у з к и м и ш в а м и The bricks s h o u ld be laid o n a fu ll b e d o f m o r ta r . W h e n y o u bricklaying, y o u w ill n o te t h a t y o u r b r ic k s h a v e a n c o m e to a c tu a l in d e n t o n o n e f a c e . D u r in g w e e k s 13, 14 a n d 15 th e s te e l e r e c to r s bricklayers w h o b u ild the brickwork. T h a t g iv e s th e d e s ir e d illu s io n o f t ig h t j o i n t s in q u a lity gauged brickwork. w o r k s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith t h e 2. jo in t ['c fe o in t] — ш о в к и р п и ч н о й к л а д к и , с о е д и н е н и е , сты к m o r ta r jo in t — ш о в с з а п о л н е н и е м с т р о и т е л ь н ы м р а с т ­ вором p o in t m o r ta r j o in ts — р а с ш и в а т ь ш в ы ( к л а д к и ) 234 Английскийя длястудентовстроительныхспециальностей T h e few er thejoints t o b e m a d e b e tw e e n m e m b e r s , t h e s p e e d ie r Mortarjoints h a v e a n e f fe c t o n th e a p p e a r a n c e T h e tim e to point mortar joints is w h e n t h e m o r t a r is th e e r e c tio n w ill b e . o f b r ic k w o r k . h ard . 3 . c o u r se [ko:s] n — ряд (к и р п и ч н о й к л а д к и ) la y a c o u r se — к л а с т ь р я д ( к и р п и ч н о й к л а д к и ) A ll the courses s h o u ld be (aid tr u ly 4 . p lum b І р і л т ] B ric k la y e r u s e s n adjv — a plumb t o h o r iz o n ta l. о тв е с , гр у зи л о ; в е р т и к а л ь н ы й c h e c k v e r tic a lity . I s th is w a ll plumb ? 5 . c a v ity w a ll ['k a e v a ti] — п у с т о т е л а я ( п о л а я ) с т е н а , с т е н а с воздуш ной прослойкой so lid w a ll — с п л о ш н а я с т е н а Cavity walls a r e m a d e o f tw o la y e rs w ith Solid walls h a v e n o s u c h a a sm a ll g a p o r c a v ity b e tw e e n th e m . g a p a n d th i s a llo w s m o r e h e a t t o p a s s th r o u g h th e m th a n th r o u g h cavity walls. 6. fit v — п ри гон ять, присп осабли вать, собирать, м о н ти ­ ровать fit together — п р и го н ять части L a y a r o w o f d ry b r ic k s f irs t to se e t h a t th e y fit i n t h e d e s ig n a te d s p a c e . B ric k w o rk is u su a lly m a d e o f b r ic k s w h o s e m e a s u r e m e n ts a r e 1 • 2 • 4, so th a t th e y c a n fit together in m a n y p o s itio n s . 7. rub v — н а т и р а т ь , п р и т и р а т ь , з а т и р а т ь rubbers n — с п е ц и а л ь н ы й легкореж ущ ийся ки рп и ч; сл а­ б о о б о ж ж ен н ы й к и р п и ч и з к р ем н езем и сто й глины A n a lte r n a te m e th o d is Rubbers a re to sim p ly rub th e m o r t a r o v e r th e su rfa c e . re la tiv e ly so ft b ric k s t h a t h is to ric a lly h a v e b e e n u s e d to c r e a te f in e c u t a n d r u b b e d , a n d c a r v e d b r ic k w o r k . UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS 8 . л е п е е г [ ѵ э 'т э ] n v — кирпичн ая облицовка 235 стены; ш п о н , одн о сл о й н ая ф ан ер а; обли ц овы вать; обш ивать фанерой veneered brick masonry — о б л и ц о в а н н а я к и р п и ч н а я к л а д к а veneer is B e c a u s e th e m a s o n r y n o n - s t r u c t u r a l , i t m u s t b e t ie d b a c k t o th e b u ild in g s tru c tu re t o p re v e n t m o v e m e n t u n d e r w in d a n d e a r th q u a k e lo a d s . B n c k veneers a r e p r o d u c e d a s a t h i n n e r b ric k p r o d u c t w h ic h is u su a lly less t h e n h a lf th e s iz e o f n o rm a l b ric k sizes. 9 . ab so rb [ a b 's o :b ] v — п о г л о щ а т ь , а б с о р б и р о в а т ь , в п и т ы ­ вать a b so r p tio n [ a b 's o :p J n ] T h e p o w e r o f a b ric k ra te o f n — поглощ ени е, абсорбц ия to absorb w a te r is m e a s u r e d b y t h e in itia l absorption. 10. p a tte r n [ 'p a e t n j n — об р азец , м одель, узор, р и су н о к , форма b rick (w o rk ) p a tte r n — с и с т е м а к и р п и ч н о й к л а д к и M o s t to w n s to d a y h a v e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f u n c tio n a l A brickwork pattern s im p ly 11. stu c c o [ 's U k a u ] Stucco is pattern. r e q u ire s y o u t o la y o u t s tra ig h t c o u rs e s . n— наруж ная ш тукатурка a p p lie d w e t a n d h a r d e n s t o a v e ry d e n s e s o lid . 12. im p art [im 'p c u t] v — п е р е д а в а т ь , д а в а т ь , п р и д а в а т ь im p a rt s tr e n g th — п р и д а в а т ь п р о ч н о с т ь M o rta r n o t o n ly a c ts a s a strength t o cementing m a te r ia l b u t a ls o impart th e w o rk b y h o ld in g th e in d iv id u a l b ric k s to g e th e r. 13. a p p ea r [ э 'р і э ] v — п о к а з ы в а т ь с я ; п о я в л я т ь с я a p p e a r a n c e [ s 'p i a r a n s ] T h e to w n o f th e f u tu r e is n— вн еш ний вид; появление a lr e a d y appearing a m o n g u s to d a y . appearance is changing. R u s s ia n c itie s a r e g ro w in g a n d t h e i r 236 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей The appearance o f n e w m a te ria ls re s u lte d in g re a t b u ild in g s e re c te d d u n n g t h e fo llo w in g c e n tu rie s . 14. v o id n — пустота, п ора, по л о сть Voids c a u s e 15. b o n d a s e rio u s lo ss i n s t r e n g th o f c o n c r e te . nv— п ер ев язк а к и р п и ч н о й к л ад к и , свя зь; с о е д и ­ н я ть, связы вать F lem ish (D u tc h ) bond — ф л а м а н д с к а я п е р е в я з к а h ea d er b o n d [ 'h e d a ] — т ы ч к о в а я п е р е в я з к а E n g lish b o n d — а н г л и й с к а я ( ц е п н а я ) п е р е в я з к а ra t-tr a p b ond — к л а д к а в о д и н к и р п и ч ( к и р п и ч и н а ребро) s tr e tc h e r bond [ 's tr e tf a ] — л о ж к о в а я п е р е в я з к а T h e b ric k s c a n b e a rra n g e d in a v a rie ty o f p a tte r n s g iv in g n s e to bonds. T h e b ric k s were s tro n g ly bonded t o g e th e r . Flemish bond re n d e rs th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e face w o rk m o re a ttra c tiv e a n d p le a s in g . Header bond p e r m its b e t t e r a l ig n m e n t a n d a s s u c h it is u s e d fo r w alls c u rv e d o n p la n . I n English bond o n e c o u rs e c o n s is ts d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f o f b n c k s w ith t h e i r e n d s to w a r d th e fa c e o f t h e w a ll, a n d t h e n e x t c o u rs e c o n s is ts o f b n c k s w ith t h e i r le n g th s p a ra lle l to th e fa c e o f th e w all. I n the rat-trap bond b n c k s a re p la c e d o n e d g e in 1:6 c e m e n t m o rta r. 16. m eta l tie [tai] — м е т а л л и ч е с к и й а н к е р S tru c tu ra l b o n d in g o f m a s o n ry w alls m a y b e a c c o m p lis h e d b y t h e u se o f metal ties e m b e d d e d 17. durable [ d ju a r a b l] in c o n n e c t i n g jo in ts . adj — du rab ility [ ,d j u a r a 'b i l 3 t i ] долговечн ы й , прочн ы й n— долговечность, прочн ость T h e f u n d a m e n ta l o b je c t i n p r o p o r t i o n i n g th is m a te r ia l is t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a durable m a te ria l. T h e m a jo r c h a r a c te r is tic s o f a lu m in u m in w h ic h th e a r c h ite c t is in te r e s te d a re its durability a n d lig h t w eig h t. UNIT 11. BUILDING THE 18. s p lit adj v — р аск о л о ты й , р а зр езан н ы й , р азд ел ен н ы й , р азъ ем н ы й ; р аск алы вать, разд ел ять I t is m u c h m o r e d if f ic u lt th e m to le n g th . Split b r ic k s 19. p r o p er [ 'p r o p s ] p r o p e r ly adv to split m a s o n r y u n i t s t h a n it is t o c u t a n d b lo c k s lo o k b a d . adj — п рави льн ы й , соответствую щ и й — до л ж н ы м о б р азо м , к ак следует, п р а­ ви льно I n b u ild in g str u c tu r e s s p e c ia l a tte n tio n m u s t b e p a id to th e u s e o f m a te r ia ls . T h e to w n m u s t w o r k properly b u t proper it s h o u ld a ls o g iv e p le a s u r e to th o s e w h o lo o k a t it. 2 0 . m o istu r e [ 'm o is tf s ] T h is s o il n e e d s n — влага, вл аж н о сть moisture. e v a p o r a te [ i 'v a e p s r e it] v — и с п а р я т ь с я , в ы п а р и в а т ь с я T h e s m a ll p o o l o f w a t e r evaporated in t h e s u n s h in e . 2 . R e a d a n d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir t r a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e p a r t o f sp e e c h . n, g a r a g e n, g r a n i t e n, id e a l adj, n, i n d i v i d u a l adj, p o t e n t i a l adj, d e g r a d a tio n n, p r a c t i c a l adj, c i r c u la te v, p r o g r e s s n v, c o m p le x adj, a r tis tic adj, b l o c k n, s e le c t v , q u a lify v , u t i l i t a r i a n adj, v is u a l adj, f in is h v n, e x te n s iv e adj, a lte r n a t e l y adv, p e r p e n d i c u l a r n adj, b a s e n v, o p p o s e v, p r o te c tiv e adj, in itia l adj. I n te r v a l n, i n d u s t r i a l i z e v, a b s o rp tio n tra v e rtin e 3 . M a t c h t h e p a ir s o f a n to n y m s fr o m A a n d В a n d tr a n s la te th em . A 1. d i s c o n n e c t i o n a . s o lid 2 . d is a p p e a r a n c e b. bo n d В 238I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 3. in a p p r o p r ia te c. a p p e a ra n c e 4. h o r iz o n ta l d . s p lit 5. e x u d e e . p lu m b 6. m is m a tc h f. d u r a b le 7. p e n e tr a b le g. j o i n t 8. fra g ile h. ab so rb 9. w h o le i. p r o p e r 10. u n tie j. fit 4. M a t c h th e n o u n (s ) o n th e le ft w ith a su ita b le ite m o n th e r ig h t. U s e e a c h ite m o n c e o n ly . 1. T h e c o u r s e s a. is a p p lie d w et. 2. 3 4. 5. 6. b . w e re p o in te d . T h e b u ild in g S tu c c o A b r ic k la y e r H eader bond R u b b e rs c . c r e a te c a r v e d b ric k w o r k . d . w a s e m b e d d e d in c o n n e c t i o n jo in ts . e. a r e la id h o r iz o n ta lly . f. is r e q u ir e d to la y s tr a ig h t c o u r s e s . 7. A m e ta l tie 8. M o r t a r jo i n t s g. h a s a b r ic k v e n e e r . 9. A b r ic k w o r k p a t t e r n 10. A p lu m b l. is u s e d f o r c u r v e d w a lls, 5. h . c h e c k s v e r tic a lity . j . b u ild s w alls. R e p la c e th e u n d erlin ed w o rd s w ith th e w o rd s b e lo w . a) bon d e ) im p a r t i) m o is tu r e b ) e v a p o r a te c ) c a v ity w a ll f) sp lit g) ru b d) veneer h ) ap p e a ra n c e j ) f it 1. N o n - l o a d b e a r i n g b r ic k fa c in g w a s a p p lie d t o a w a ll t o g iv e a p p e a r a n c e o f s o lid - b n c k c o n s tr u c tio n . 2. T h e a r c h i t e c t c h a n g e d th e lo o k o f th e b u ild in g fro m M e d ite rra n e a n to a m o re ty p ic a l F lo rid a lo o k . 3. T h e w a te r in th e r e s e r v o ir c a n d r v up in th e h o t s u m m e r . 4. T e m p o r a r y p a r titio n s d iv id e t h e sp a c e in to th r e e r o o m s . 5. T h e s e b e a m s a r e s u ita b le w h e r e l o a d s a r e g r e a t o r s p a n s a r e la rg e . 6. B ric k la y e rs s p r e a d a b e d o f m o r t a r w ith a tr o w e l ( a f la t, b l a d e d UNIT 11. b u il d in g t h e w a l l s 239 m e ta l t o o l w ith a h a n d le ) , p la c e th e b r ic k o n th e m o r t a r b e d , a n d t h e n p r e s s a n d t a p t h e b r i c k in to p la c e . 7. A lm o s t a ll h o m e s , a p a r t m e n t s , a n d c o m m e r c i a l b u ild in g s c a n e x p e r i e n c e le a k s , flo o d in g , o r o t h e r fo r m s o f e x c e s s iv e i n d o o r d a m p n e s s a t s o m e p o i n t . 8 . T h e in v e n tio n p ro v id e s a d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e b ric k s t o t h e w a ll s u p p o r tin g s tr u c tu r e s u c h t h a t th e s u p p o r t f o r t h e b ric k s is n o t d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e n o n - s t r u c t u r a l b a c k in g b o a r d . 9. T h e s h a p e o f a n a r c h gives it g re a t s tre n g th . 10. T h e a ir s p a c e s h o u ld b e c o n t i n u o u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e h o llo w w a ll in o r d e r t o o b t a i n th e fu ll b e n e f it o f t h e s p a c e . 6 . R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g w o rd c o m b in a tio n s w h ich c o m e fr o m th e te x ts o f th e U n it. M in d th e u s e o f n o u n s a s a ttr ib u te s in p r e p o sitio n . L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . M o r t a r j o i n t s , t h e w e a th e r r e s is ta n c e , c a v ity w a ll i n s u la tio n , c i n d e r c o n c r e t e , c o n c r e t e m a s o n r y u n its , a w a te r a b s o r p t i o n r a te , in d u s tr ia l sty le b u ild in g s , a s tu c c o s u r f a c e , a b lo c k w a ll, b lo c k v o id s , s te e l re b a r , w a ll s tr e n g th a n d s ta b ility , s te e l r e in f o r c e m e n t , r o a d s o u n d c o n t r o l w a lls, fa c e p a t t e r n s , m a s o n r y c o n s t r u c t i o n , fro s t d a m a g e , a m a s o n r y w a ll s u rfa c e , e a r th q u a k e p r o n e re g io n s , m a s o n r y p ie r s , s u rfa c e fe a tu r e s , g a r d e n w a ll b o n d , o n e b r ic k t h i c k n e s s , in s u l a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s , a i r c a v ity , a k i t c h e n g a r d e n , m e ta l p r o d u c t s , a m o r t a r la y e r, s ta in le s s s te e l w ire . 7 . U s in g a d ic tio n a r y c o m p le te th e c h a r t w ith th e ap p r o p r ia te w ord fo r m . I n s o m e c a s e s th e r e m a y b e m o r e th a n o n e a n sw er. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Verb construct Noun Adjective Adverb evaporative fitly measure serviceability expansive produce additionally occupational vary 2 4 0 [ Английский я зы к для студентов строительны х специальностей SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8 . R e a d an d tr a n s la te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e fu n c tio n s o f th e verb to b e Example is o n t h e ta b le . — Е г о р у ч к а находится н а с т о л е . was asked t o c o m e . — Е г о попросили п р и й т и . Н е was waiting f o r h e r a t 10 o ’c lo c k y e s te r d a y . — О н ждал е е H is p e n Не в ч е р а в 10 ч а с о в . Не is to c o m e a t 3 o ’c lo c k . — О н должен п р и й т и в 3 ч а с а . 1. E a c h la y e r o f b r ic k s is c a lle d a c o u r s e . 2. M a s o n r y is t h e b u ild in g o f s tr u c tu r e s f r o m in d iv id u a l u n its la id in a n d b o u n d to g e t h e r b y m o r ta r . 3 W h e r e t h e b n c k s a re t o r e m a in fu lly v is ib le , t h i s is k n o w n a s f a c e - w o r k . 4 . A p a r tm e n ts r e n ts a re h ig h , s o I a m lo o k in g a t a d s f o r r o o m m a te s . 5 . T h e t h ic k n e s s o f a w a ll w h ic h is t o b e c o n s id e r e d in e v a lu a tin g t h e q u a n t i t y o f b r ic k w o r k is c a lle d n o m i n a l t h ic k n e s s o f a w a ll. 6 . W a t e r is u s e d in m ix in g th e m o r t a r t o p r o d u c e a p a s te in w h ic h t h e b n c k s c a n b e f ir m ly b e d d e d . 7. C o n c r e te m a s o n r y u n its a r e u s u a lly m u c h l a ig e r t h a n o r d i n a r y b r ic k s a n d s o a re m u c h f a s te r t o la y f o r a w a ll o f a g iv e n s iz e . 8. M o b ile h o m e s a r e b e c o m in g m o r e p o p u l a r , b e c a u s e t h e y a re c o m f o r ta b le a n d in e x p e n s iv e 9 T h e r e is a p r o b le m w h e n I ty p e . T h e r e m u s t b e a p r o b le m w ith t h e k e y b o a r d 10. W h e n a w a ll is b u ilt o f b n c k s , t h e b r ic k s a re s e t in m o r ta r . 9 . R e a d a n d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g sp e c ia l a tte n tio n t o th e fu n c tio n s o f th e verb to h a v e . Example H e has a n e w c a r . — У н е г о есть н о в а я м а ш и н а . ( О н имеет н о в у ю м а ш и н у .) UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS 241 H e has sent a l e t t e r t o h e r th i s m o r n in g . — С е г о д н я у т р о м о н послал е й п и с ь м о . Н е has been waiting f o r h e r fo r tw o h o u r s . — О н ждет е е в теч ен и и двух часов. Н е has to g e t u p e a r ly e v e ry d a y . — Е м у приходится ( о н вы­ нужден) в с т а в а т ь р а н о к а ж д ы й д е н ь . 1. W h e n y o u h a v e d e c id e d w h ic h a re a y o u a re in te re s te d m a n d t h o u g h t re a listic a lly a b o u t w h a t s o rt o f p e rs o n y o u a re , t h e n y o u c a n d e c id e w h a t s o r t o f e n g i n e e r y o u w a n t t o b e . 2 T h e b lo c k s s o m e tim e s h a v e g ro o v e s o r o t h e r s u rfa c e f e a tu r e s a d d e d t o e n h a n c e th is in te rlo c k in g , a n d s o m e d ry se t m a s o n ry s tru c tu re s f o re g o m o rta r a lto g e th e r. 3. T h e b r ic k la y e r h a s t o b e v e ry sk illfu l t o k e e p t h e c o u rses ex actly level a n d th e th ic k n e s s o f m o rta r b e tw e e n e a c h c o u rse o f b ric k s th e s a m e t h r o u g h o u t th e l e n g th a n d d e p t h o f th e w all. 4. M a t h e m a tic ia n s a n d s c ie n tis ts ( a n d t h e i r u n iv e rs itie s ) h a v e b e e n e le c tr o n ic a lly e x c h a n g in g i n f o r m a tio n o v e r t h e I n t e r n e t s in c e th e m id -7 0 s . 5. S o m e s u b u r b s c o n s is t o f h o u s in g e s ta te s , w h ile o th e r s w e re o rig in a lly villag es th a t h a v e b e c o m e jo in e d to th e to w n a s it h a s g ro w n . 6. H e h a s b e e n w a itin g fo r a m u n i c i p a l h o u s e fo r th e last t h r e e y e a rs . 7. W h e n b n c k s a re b u ilt in c u r v e s , a s in a r c h e s o r c u rv e d w a lls, th e b n c k l a y e r h a s t o s h a p e t h e b r ic k s in o r d e r t o fit th e m to g e th e r . 8. A c o n c r e t e b lo c k ty p ic a lly h a s a lo w e r w a te r a b s o r p tio n r a te t h a n a b n c k . 9 . T h e s y s te m h a s b e e n p r o g r a m m e d n o t o n ly w ith g r a m m a tic a l ru le s , b u t a lso w ith t h e a n a ly s is o f a v a st q u a n tity o f o ffice c o rre s p o n d e n c e . 1 0 . 1 a m m o v in g t o L o s A n g e le s in t h e fa ll, b u t I h a v e t o fin d s o m e p la c e t o liv e. 10. C o m p le te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s , u s in g th e verb s a ) to b e o r b ) to h a v e in d ifferen t fu n c tio n s. P u t th e verb to c r e a te in to th e m o s t su ita b le a c tiv e o r p a s s iv e te n s e fo rm . a) 1. T h e first la b o u r u n i o n _________ in 1905. 2. T h e first la b o u r u n i o n ______________ n e x t y e a r. 3. T h e firs t la b o u r u n io n ____________ la s t y e a r ( a r r a n g e m e n t s / p l a n s ) . 4. T h e first la b o u r 242 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей u n i o n ______________w h e n th e p l a n t b e g a n d o in g w e ll. 5. T h e y _____________ t h e first la b o u r u n io n w h e n h e b e c a m e t h e d ir e c to r o f th e p la n t. b) 1. T h e first la b o u r u n i o n ____________ th is y e a r. 2. T h e first la b o u r u n i o n _____________ to p r o te c t th e w o rk e rs ’ rig h ts a t th e p la n t n o w (n e c e s s ity ). 3. H e ______________th e firs t l a b o u r u n io n a t th e p l a n t th is y e a r. 4 . H e ______________t h e la b o u r u n i o n t o p r o te c t t h e w o rk e rs ’ rig h ts a t th e p la n t n o w (n e c e s s ity ). 5. T h e first l a b o u r u n i o n ___________ a lo t o f m e m b e r s n o w . 1 1 . R e a d an d tra n sla te th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o th e lu n c tio n s o f th e verb s shall/will. Example I (w e ) shall write a l e t t e r t o h im . — Я напишу е м у п и с ь м о . Shall 1 read th is te x t? — М н е читать э т о т т е к с т ? T h e first p a y m e n t shallbe m a d e w ith in five d a y s a fte r th e d e liv e ry o f th e c a rg o . — П е р в ы й п л а т е ж должен б ы т ь (будет) п р о и з в е ­ д е н в т е ч е н и е п я т и д н е й п о с л е д о с т а в к и гр у за. will see h e r to m o r r o w . — В ы увидите е е з а в т р а . Will y o u c lo s e th e w in d o w ? — З а к р о й т е , п о ж а л у й с т а , о к н о . Y ou 1. W ill y o u b e h a p p ie s t w o rk in g in a n o ffic e , in a f a c to r y , o r o u td o o rs ? 2. W ill y o u s h u t th e d o o r , p le a s e ? 3. W e s h a ll a t t e n d th e p ro fe s s o r’s le c tu re o n b u ild in g c o n s tru c tio n t o m o rro w . 4. A c c o rd in g to th e s p e c if ic a tio n t h e s t o n e u s e d s h a ll b e h a r d , s o u n d a n d fre e f ro m d e fe c ts o f a n y k in d 5. W h a t sh a ll I s a y w h e n t h e p h o n e rin g s a n d s o m e o n e ask s fo r y o u ? 6. A lm o s t e v e ry th in g w e u s e in m o d e m life is m a d e b y e n g in e e rs . F o r e x a m p le , i f a m a n u f a c t u r e r w a n ts a f a s te r c a r , a s m a ll p e r s o n a l s te r e o , o r a b e t t e r p e n , th e y w ill a s k a d e s ig n e n g in e e r t o f in d a p r a c tic a l s o lu tio n . 7. A c c o rd in g to th e s p e c if ic a tio n a s fa r a s p o s s ib le t h e s to n e s s e le c te d fo r th e fa c e w o rk sh a ll b e n e a r ly e q u a l in siz e . 8. I s h a n ’t te ll a n y o n e w h a t h a p p e n e d . 9. W ill y o u t u r n d o w n th e s o u n d , p le a s e ? 10. S h a ll w e s ta y in th is c o u n t r y o r g o a b r o a d 1*7 UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS 12. I 243 R e a d and tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n t o t h e f u n c tio n s o f th e v e r b s s h o u ld /w o u ld . Example H e should h e lp th e m . — Е м у следует ( О н должен) п о м о ч ь и м . Would y o u m i n d o p e n i n g t h e w in d o w ? — Б у д ь т е д о б р ы о т ­ кры ть о кно. Не would go t o t h e c i n e m a i f h e h a d t i m e . — О н пошел бы в к и н о , если бы у него бы ло врем я. Н е s a id h e would return s o o n . — О н с к а з а л , ч т о о н с к о р о вернется. S h e would s it f o r h o u r s o n th e riv e r b a n k . — О н а бывало с и д е ­ л а ч асам и н а б ерегу реки. 1. A t t h e tim e o f th e R e n a is s a n c e in t h e 1 5 th a n d 1 6 th c e n tu r ie s a n e w s o r t o f b u ild in g s p e c ia lis t e m e r g e d . H e w a s u s u a lly a p h i l o s o p h e r o r a r tis t, r a t h e r t h a n a c r a f t s m a n , w h o w o u ld g e t to g e t h e r a te a m o f b u ild in g w o rk e rs a n d m a k e a r r a n g e m e n ts t o p a y t h e m . 2. I f n o n - c o n c r e t e ( c la y - b a s e d ) b n c k is t o b e u s e d , c a r e s h o u ld b e t a k e n to s e le c t b r ic k s su ita b le f o r th e c lim a te in q u e s tio n . 3. W h a t g e n e r a l p r i n c i p a l s w o u ld y o u k e e p i n m i n d w h ile s u p e r v is in g b r ic k w o r k u n d e r c o n s tr u c tio n ? 4 . H e w o u ld f in is h h is p r o je c t i f h e w e r e n ’t ill. 5. I n th e 1 9 th c e n tu r y , d if f e r e n t c o n tr a c to r s w o u ld c a lc u la te w h a t it w o u ld c o s t t o c o m p l e t e a p r o j e c t a n d th e n t h e lo w e s t e s tim a te w o u ld b e c h o s e n . 6. T h e b r ic k s s h o u l d b e la id o n a f u ll b e d o f m o r ta r . 7 . H e w o u ld h a v e d o n e t h a t g r e a t d is c o v e ry e a r lie r i f h e h a d h a d b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s f o r w o rk . 8 . A ll t h e j o i n t s s h o u l d b e p r o p e r ly f ille d w ith m o r t a r s o t h a t n o c a v ity is le f t in b e tw e e n . 9. A d v a n c e s in s c ie n c e m e a n t t h a t b u ild in g d e s ig n e r s c o u ld c a lc u la te in a d v a n c e h o w a b u ild in g s h o u ld b e c o n s tr u c te d to e n s u r e t h a t it w o u ld s t a n d u p , in s te a d o f re ly in g o n a s y s te m o f tr ia l a n d e r r o r , f o r it s o m e tim e s h a p p e n e d t h a t a b u ild in g w o u ld c o lla p s e w h ile it w a s b e in g b u ilt. 10 W o u ld y o u p le a s e b e q u ie t? I ’m tr y in g t o c o n c e n tr a te . 2441Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей SECTION 3 READING AND SPEAKING 13. B e fo r e y o u r e a d T e x t 11A “ B r ic k la y in g an d C o n c r e te B lo c k s ” , th in k a b o u t th e s ta te m e n ts giv en b e lo w an d s a y i f th e y a r e tru e o r fa lse . a) T h e b r ic k s m u s t b e c a r e f u lly b o n d e d in o r d e r t o p r o v id e f o r t h e m ix in g o f m o r ta r . b ) B ric k s h a v e lo w e r w a te r a b s o r p tio n th a n c o n c r e te b lo c k s . c ) C a v ity w alls d o n o t p r e v e n t h e a t f r o m e s c a p in g f r o m th e b u ild in g . d ) T h e b r ic k la y e r h a s t o b e sk ilfu l t o k e e p e a c h la y e r o f b r ic k s h o riz o n ta l. e) S o f t b r ic k s o r r u b b e r s c a n b e b u ilt w ith t h i n m o r t a r j o i n t s a f te r s h a p in g th e m . f) C o n c r e te b lo c k s a re u s e d f o r th e w alls o f in d u s tria l b u ild in g s. g ) A s tu c c o s u r f a c e is a s o r t o f d e c o r a tio n . h) S u r f a c e - b o n d in g c e m e n t d o e s n o t m a k e a w a ll s tr o n g e r . 1 4 . R e a d T e x t 1 1 A a n d fin d o u t th e a n sw e r s t o t h e t r u e /f a ls e s ta te m e n ts . D is c u s s y o u r a n sw e r s in p a ir s. • TEXT 11A B ricklayin g and Concrete Blocks W h e n a w a ll is b u ilt o f b r ic k s , th e b r ic k s a re s e t in m o r ta r . M o r t a r c o n s is ts o f a m ix tu r e o f s a n d a n d e i t h e r lim e o r P o r t l a n d c e m e n t o r , m o r e o f te n , a m ix tu r e o f t h e tw o . E n o u g h w a te r is u s e d in m ix in g th e m o r t a r to p r o d u c e a p a s te in w h ic h t h e b r ic k s c a n b e f ir m ly b e d d e d . T h e b r ic k s m u s t b e c a r e f u lly a r r a n g e d , o r b o n d e d a s it is c a lle d , in th e w a ll in o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a s tr u c tu r e o f good s t r e n g th a n d a p p e a r a n c e , th e p a t t e r n o f th e b r ic k w o r k d e p e n d in g o n th e b o n d w h ic h is u s e d . T h e p o in tin g o r fin is h in g o f UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS j 2 4 5 m o r t a r jo i n t s is a ls o g iv e n c a r e f u l a tte n tio n s in c e I it a f f e c t s t h e a p p e a r a n c e a n d th e w e a th e r re s is t­ a n c e o f th e w all. E a c h la y e r o f b ric k s is c a lle d a c o u rs e a n d t h e b ric k la y e r h a s t o b e v e ry sk illfu l t o k e e p t h e c o u rs e s e x a c tly le v e l a n d th e t h ic k n e s s o f m o r ta r b e tw e e n e a c h c o u rs e o f b ric k s th e s a m e th ro u g h o u t th e le n g th a n d d e p t h o f t h e w a ll. T h e c o r n e r s o f th e w a lls m u s t b e A mason laying mortar on top of a finished course of blocks, prior to placing the next course. a b s o lu te ly u p rig h t. N o w a d a y s th e o u t e r w a lls o f b u ild in g s o f t e n c o n s is t o f a n o u t e r a n d i n n e r w a ll w ith a s p a c e o f a b o u t 5 c e n t i m e t r e s b e tw e e n t h e m , t h e tw o l a y e rs b e in g h e ld t o g e t h e r a t in te r v a ls b y s m a ll m e t a l t ie s . T h e s e c a v ity w alls, a s t h e y a re c a lle d , h e lp m o is tu re e v a p o ra te b e tte r t h a n s o lid w a lls. A la y e r o f in s u la tin g m a te r ia l is o f te n p u t m t h e s p a c e b e tw e e n th e w alls to p re v e n t h e a t e s c a p in g f ro m t h e b u ild in g . T h is is k n o w n as c a v ity w a ll in s u la tio n . W h e n b ric k s a re b u ilt in c u rv e s , as m a r c h e s o r c u r v e d w a lls, th e b r ic k la y e r h a s t o s h a p e th e b ric k s in o r d e r t o fit th e m to g e th e r. S o m e tim e s q u ite s o ft b ric k s c a lle d ru b b e rs a re u s e d ; th e s e c a n b e r u b b e d o n a h a r d s to n e in o r d e r t o s h a p e t h e m so a c c u r a te ly t h a t th e y c a n b e b u ilt w ith t h i n m o r ta r jo in ts . W o rk o f th is ty p e is k n o w n as g a u g e d b ric k w o rk a n d d e m a n d s g re a t skill. B lo c k s o f c i n d e r c o n c r e t e , o r d in a r y c o n c r e t e , o r h o llo w tile a re g e n e n c a lly k n o w n as c o n c r e te m a s o n r y u n its . T h e y a re u su a lly m u c h la rg e r t h a n o r d in a r y b ric k s a n d s o a re m u c h fa s te r t o la y fo r a w a ll o f a g iv e n s iz e . F u r t h e r m o r e , c i n d e r a n d c o n c r e te b lo c k s ty p ic a lly h a v e m u c h lo w e r w a te r a b s o r p tio n ra te s t h a n b ric k . T h e y a re o fte n u s e d a s th e s tr u c tu r a l c o re fo r v e n e e re d b ric k m a s o n ry , o r are u s e d a lo n e fo r th e w alls o f fa c to rie s , g a ra g e s a n d o th e r in d u s tria l sty le b u ild in g s w h e re s u c h a p p e a r a n c e is a c c e p ta b le o r d e s ira b le . S u c h b lo c k s o fte n re c e iv e a s tu c c o s u rfa c e f o r d e c o r a tio n . S u rfa c e - 246 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей b o n d in g c e m e n t, w h ic h c o n ta in s s y n th e tic fib e rs f o r re in f o r c e m e n t, is s o m e tim e s u s e d in th is a p p lic a tio n a n d c a n im p a r t e x tra s tr e n g th t o a w a ll. S u r f a c e - b o n d in g c e m e n t is o f te n p r e - c o l o u r e d a n d c a n b e sta in e d o r p a in te d th u s r e s u ltin g in a f in is h e d s tu c c o - lik e su rfa c e . T h e p rim a ry stru c tu ra l a d v a n ta g e o f c o n c r e te b lo c k s m c o m p a ris o n t o s m a lle r c la y - b a s e d b n c k s is t h a t a c o n c r e t e m a s o n r y u n i t w a ll c a n b e r e i n f o r c e d b y fillin g th e b lo c k v o id s w ith c o n c r e te w ith o r w ith o u t s te e l re b a r . G e n e r a lly , c e r t a i n v o id s a re d e s ig n a te d f o r f illin g a n d r e i n f o r c e m e n t, p a r tic u la r ly a t c o m e r s , w a ll- e n d s , a n d o p e n in g s w h ile o t h e r v o id s a r e le ft e m p ty . T h is in c r e a s e s w all str e n g th a n d s ta b ility m o r e e c o n o m ic a lly t h a n fillin g a n d r e in fo rc in g all v o id s S te e l re in f o r c e m e n t c a n b e e m b e d d e d in h o r iz o n ta l m o r ta r jo in ts o f c o n c r e te b lo c k w alls. T h e in tr o d u c tio n o f steel re in fo rc e m e n t g e n e r a lly r e s u lts in a c o n c r e te m a s o n r y u n i t w a ll h a v in g m u c h g r e a te r la te r a l a n d te n s ile s tr e n g th t h a n u n r e i n f o r c e d w a lls. S o m e c o n c r e te b lo c k s a re c o lo u r e d , a n d s o m e e m p lo y a s p lit fa c e , a te c h n iq u e t h a t resu lts in tw o b lo c k s b e in g m a n u f a c tu r e d a s o n e u n it a n d la te r s p lit in to tw o . T h is gives th e b lo c k s a ro u g h face re p lic a tin g th e a p p e a r a n c e o f n a tu r a l, q u a r r ie d s t o n e , s u c h a s b r o w n s to n e . F o r a p p lic a tio n s s u c h a s ro a d w a y s o u n d c o n tr o l w a lls, th e fa c e p a tte r n s m a y b e c o m p le x a n d e v e n a rtistic . 15. F in d in T e x t 1 1A th e p aragraph sa y in g ab ou t th e ad van tages o f c o n c r e te b lo c k s o v e r c la y b r ic k s and tr a n s la te it in to R u ssia n . 1 6 . R e a d a lo u d p a ra g ra p h 5 . 1 7 . E x p la in th e fo llo w in g r e f e r e n c e s . a) it a ffe c ts th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e w a ll. W h a t d o e s t h e p r o n o u n it r e f e r to ? b ) This is k n o w n a s c a v ity w a ll in s u la tio n . W h a t d o e s t h e p r o n o u n this r e f e r to ? c) in o r d e r t o fit them t o g e th e r . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n them r e f e r t o ? UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS d) 247 these c a n b e ru b b e d o n a h a r d s to n e these r e fe r t o ? W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n They a re u su a lly m u c h la r g e r t h a n o r d i n a r y b ric k s W h a t d o e s t h e p r o n o u n they r e fe r to ? e) 0 They a re o f te n u s e d a s th e s t r u c tu r a l c o r e f o r v e n e e r e d b r ic k m aso n ry W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n g) they re f e r t o ? This i n c r e a s e s w a ll s tr e n g th a n d s ta b ility m o re e c o n o m ic a lly th a n fillin g a n d re in f o r c in g a ll v o id s . W h a t d o e s th e p ro n o u n this r e f e r to ? 1 8 . F in d in T e x t 1 1 A s o m e k e y w o r d s an d e x p r e s s io n s t o sp e a k a b ou t b r ic k la y in g . R e te ll th e T e x t in E n g lish . 1 9 . S k im T e x t 1 1 B “ M a s o n r y ” and tr y t o u n d e r sta n d w h a t it is a b o u t and w h a t in fo r m a tio n is a lr e a d y k n o w n to y o u . • TEXT 11B Masonry M a s o n r y is th e b u ild in g o f s tr u c tu r e s fr o m in d iv id u a l u n i t s la id in a n d b o u n d t o g e t h e r b y m o r t a r ; t h e t e r m masonry c a n a ls o re f e r t o t h e u n i t s t h e m s e lv e s . T h e c o m m o n m a t e r i a l s o f m a s o n r y c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e b r ic k , s t o n e s u c h as m a rb le , g r a n ite , tr a v e r t i n e , l im e s to n e ; c o n c r e te b lo c k , g la s s b lo c k , a n d tile . M a s o n r y is a h ig h ly d u ra b le fo rm o f c o n s tr u c tio n . H o w e v e r, th e m a te r ia ls u s e d , th e q u a lity o f t h e m o r t a r a n d w o r k m a n s h ip , a n d th e p a t t e r n m w h ic h th e u n its are a s s e m b le d c a n a ffe c t th e d u ra b ility o f th e o v e ra ll m a s o n ry c o n s tr u c tio n . 248I Английский язы к для студентов строительных специальностей M a s o n r y is c o m m o n ly u s e d f o r th e w alls o f b u ild in g s , r e ta in in g w a lls a n d m o n u m e n ts . B ric k a n d c o n c r e te b lo c k are t h e m o s t c o m m o n ty p e s o f m a s o n ry in u se in in d u s tn a liz e d n a tio n s a n d m a y b e e ith e r w e ig h t- b e a r in g o r a v e n e e r. C o n c r e te b lo c k s , e s p e c ia lly th o s e w ith h o llo w c o r e s , o f f e r v a r io u s p o s s ib ilitie s in m a s o n r y H eader bon d c o n s tr u c tio n . T h e y g e n e r a lly c o m p r e s s iv e s tr e n g th p r o v id e g reat a n d are b e s t s u ite d to s tr u c tu r e s w ith lig h t tr a n s v e r s e lo a d in g w h e n t h e c o r e s r e m a in u n fille d . F illin g s o m e o r a ll o f t h e c o r e s w ith c o n c r e te o r c o n c r e te w ith s te e l re in f o r c e m e n t (ty p ic a lly re b a r) o ffe rs m u c h g r e a te r te n sile a n d la te r a l s tr e n g th t o s tr u c tu r e s . T h e u se o f m a te r ia ls s u c h as b n c k an d s t o n e c a n in c r e a s e t h e t h e r m a l m a s s o f a b u ild in g , g iv in g in c r e a s e d c o m f o r t in th e h e a t o f s u m m e r a n d t h e c o ld o f w in te r , a n d c a n b e id e a l f o r p a ssiv e s o la r a p p lic a tio n s . B r ic k w ill n o t r e q u ir e p a in tin g a n d s o c a n p r o v id e a s tru c tu re w ith r e d u c e d life -c y c le c o sts, a lth o u g h se a lin g a p p r o p r i a t e l y w ill r e d u c e p o t e n t i a l I F lem ish b o n d s p a llin g d u e t o fr o s t d a m a g e . N o n - d e c o r a tiv e c o n c r e te b lo c k g e n e ra lly is p a in te d o r stu c c o e d if e x p o s e d . T h e a p p e a r a n c e , e s p e c ia lly w h e n w e ll c r a f te d , c a n im p a r t a n im p r e s s io n o f s o lid ity a n d p e r m a n e n c e . M a s o n r y is h e a t r e s is ta n t a n d th u s p r o v id e s fire p r o te c tio n . M a s o n r y w alls are m o r e r e s is ta n t t o p r o je c tile s , s u c h as d e b r is f r o m h u m c a n e s o r to r n a d o e s th a n w a lls o f w o o d o r o t h e r so f te r , less d e n s e m a te r ia ls . E x tr e m e w e a th e r c a u s e s d e g r a d a tio n o f m a s o n r y w a ll s u r f a c e s d u e to fro s t d a m a g e . T h is ty p e o f d a m a g e is c o m m o n w ith c e r ta in ty p e s o f b r ic k , th o u g h ra r e w ith c o n c r e te b lo c k . I f n o n - c o n c r e t e ( c la y - b a s e d ) b n c k is to b e u s e d , c a r e s h o u ld b e ta k e n t o s e le c t b r ic k s s u ita b le f o r t h e c lim a te m q u e s tio n . M a s o n r y t e n d s t o b e h e a v y a n d m u st b e b u ilt u p o n a stro n g fo u n d a tio n (u su a lly r e in fo rc e d c o n c r e te ) to a v o id se ttlin g a n d c ra c k in g . I f e x p a n siv e so ils (s u c h as UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS 249 a d o b e c la y ) a re p r e s e n t, th is f o u n d a tio n n e e d s to b e q u ite e la b o r a te a n d t h e s e r v ic e s o f a q u a lif ie d s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r m a y b e r e q u ir e d , p a r tic u la r ly in e a r th q u a k e p r o n e re g io n s. M a s o n r y b o a s ts a n im p re s s iv e c o m p r e s s iv e s tr e n g th (v e r tic a l lo a d s ) b u t is m u c h lo w e r in te n s ile s tr e n g th ( tw is tin g o r s tr e tc h in g ) u n le s s r e in f o r c e d . T h e te n s ile s tr e n g th o f m a s o n r y w a lls c a n b e s tr e n g th e n e d b y th ic k e n in g th e w a ll, o r b y b u ild in g m a s o n r y p ie r s ( v e r tic a l c o l u m n s o r rib s) a t in te r v a ls . W h e r e p r a c t i c a l , s te e l r e in f o r c e m e n ts c a n b e a d d e d . T h e s tr e n g th o f a m a s o n r y w a ll is n o t e n tir e ly d e p e n d e n t o n th e b o n d b e tw e e n th e b u ild in g m a te r ia l a n d t h e m o r ta r ; t h e f r ic tio n b e tw e e n t h e in te r lo c k in g b lo c k s o f m a s o n r y is s tr o n g e n o u g h to p r o v id e a g r e a t d e a l o f s tr e n g th o n its o w n . T h e b lo c k s s o m e tim e s h a v e g r o o v e s o r o t h e r s u r f a c e f e a tu r e s a d d e d t o e n h a n c e th is in te r lo c k in g , a n d s o m e d r y s e t m a s o n r y s t r u c t u r e s f o r e g o m o r t a r a lto g e th e r. S o lid m a s o n r y w i t h o u t s te e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t te n d s t o h a v e v e ry lim ite d a p p lic a tio n s in m o d e m w all c o n s tr u c tio n . W h ile s u c h w a lls c a n b e q u i t e e c o n o m i c a l a n d s u ita b le in s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s , s u s c e p tib ility t o e a r th q u a k e s a n d c o lla p s e is a m a jo r is s u e . S o lid u n r e i n f o r c e d m a s o n r y w a lls t e n d to b e lo w a n d t h i c k a s a consequence. S o lid b r ic k w o r k is m a d e o f tw o o r m o r e la y e rs o f b r ic k s w ith th e u n its r u n n in g h o r iz o n ta lly ( c a lle d s t r e t c h e r b r ic k s ) b o u n d t o g e t h e r w ith b r ic k s r u n n in g tr a n s v e r s e t o th e w a ll ( c a lle d h e a d e r b r ic k s ) . E a c h ro w o f b r ic k s is k n o w n as a c o u r s e . T h e p a t t e r n o f h e a d e r s a n d s tr e tc h e r s e m p lo y e d g iv e s n s e t o d if f e r e n t b o n d s s u c h a s th e c o m m o n b o n d ( w ith e v e ry s ix th c o u r s e c o m p o s e d o f h e a d e r s ) , th e E n g lis h b o n d , a n d t h e F le m is h b o n d ( w ith a l t e r n a tin g s tr e t c h e r a n d h e a d e r b r ic k s p r e s e n t o n e v e ry c o u rs e ). T h e r e a re n o s ig n ific a n t u tilita r ia n d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n m o s t b o n d s , b u t th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e f in is h e d w a ll is a f f e c te d . V e r tic a lly s ta g g e r e d b o n d s t e n d t o b e s o m e w h a t s tr o n g e r a n d le ss p r o n e t o m a jo r c r a c k in g th a n a n o n s ta g g e re d b o n d . 250j_Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 2 0 . Id e n tify th e to p ic o f e a c h p aragrap h o f T e x t 1 1 B . 2 1 . A n sw e r th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s. a ) W h a t is m a s o n ry ? b ) W h a t a r e th e c o m m o n m a te r ia ls o f m a s o n r y c o n s tr u c tio n ? c ) W h a t a re th e m o s t c o m m o n ty p e s o f m a s o n r y ? d ) W h y d o c o n c r e te b lo c k s o f f e r v a rio u s p o ssib ilitie s in m a s o n r y c o n s tr u c tio n ? e) W h a t a r e th e a d v a n ta g e s o f b r ic k s a n d s to n e ? f ) D o e s m a s o n r y p ro v id e fire p r o te c tio n ? g) W h a t a r e th e d is a d v a n ta g e s o f m a s o n r y ? h ) W h a t c a n h e lp t o a v o id th e s e ttlin g o f f o u n d a tio n s ? i) H o w c a n th e te n s ile s tr e n g th o f a w a ll b e s t r e n g th e n e d ? j) W h a t d o e s t h e s tr e n g th o f a m a s o n r y w a ll d e p e n d o n ? k ) W h y d o e s s o lid m a s o n r y w ith o u t s te e l r e in f o r c e m e n t h a v e lim ite d a p p lic a tio n s ? l) W h a t a r e s t r e t c h e r a n d h e a d e r b r ic k s ? 2 2 . R e a d T e x t 1 1 C “ B r ic k w o r k ” an d fin d th e a n sw e r s t o th e s e q u e s tio n s . D is c u s s th e m w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a ) H o w is b r ic k m a s o n r y p r o d u c e d ? b ) H o w is F le m is h b o n d c r e a te d ? c ) W h a t is a c o m m o n v a r ia tio n o f F le m is h b o n d ? d ) W h a t is th e a d v a n ta g e o f r a t - t r a p b o n d ? e ) W h e r e w a s r a t - t r a p b o n d in c o m m o n u se ? f) W h a t is a c o m m o n ? g ) W h a t d o c o m m o n s u su a lly fe a tu re ? h ) W h a t a r e tie s u s e d fo r? i) W h y a re tie s e x p e n siv e ? UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS 251 • TEXT 11C B rickw ork B ric k w o rk m a s o n r y is p r o d u c e d w h e n a b r ic k la y e r u s e s b ric k s a n d m o r t a r to b u ild u p s t r u c tu r e s s u c h a s w a lls , b r id g e s a n d c h im n e y s . B ric k w o rk is a lso u s e d t o fin is h o p e n in g s s u c h as d o o r s o r w in d o w s in b u ild in g s m a d e o f o t h e r m a te ria ls . W h e re th e b n c k s a re to re m a in fu lly visible, as o p p o s e d to b e in g c o v e re d u p b y p la s te r o r s tu c c o , th is is k n o w n as fa c e -w o rk . F le m is h b o n d , also k n o w n as D u tc h b o n d , h a s h isto ric a lly alw ays b e e n c o n s id e r e d t h e m o s t d e c o ra tiv e b o n d , a n d f o r th is re a s o n w a s u s e d e x te n s iv e ly fo r d w e llin g s u n til th e a d o p tio n o f th e c a v ity w a ll. It is c r e a te d b y a lte r n a te ly la y in g h e a d e r s a n d s t r e tc h e r s in a sin g le c o u rs e . T h e n e x t c o u r s e is la id s o t h a t a h e a d e r lie s in t h e m id d le o f th e s t r e t c h e r in th e c o u r s e b e lo w . A g a in , th is b o n d is o n e b ric k th ic k . I t is q u ite d iffic u lt t o la y F le m is h b o n d p r o p e r ly , s in c e fo r b e s t e ffe c t a ll th e p e r p e n d ic u la r s ( v e rtic a l m o r t a r j o in ts ) n e e d t o b e v e r tic a lly a lig n e d . I f o n l y o n e fa c e o f a F l e m is h bond wall is e x p o s e d , o n e t h i r d o f t h e b r ic k s a re n o t v is ib le , a n d h e n c e m a y b e o f lo w v is u a l q u a lity . T h is is a b e t t e r ra tio t h a n f o r E n g lis h b o n d , t h e m a i n riv a l o f F le m is h b o n d f o r l o a d - b e a r in g w alls. A c o m m o n v a r ia tio n fo u n d in e a r ly 1 8 th c e n t u r y b u ild in g s is g l a z e d - h e a d e d F le m is h b o n d , in w h ic h t h e e x p o se d h e a d e rs are b u r n e d u n t i l t h e y v itrify w ith a b la c k g la ssy s u rfa c e . R a t - t r a p b o n d , a ls o k n o w n a s C h in e s e b o n d , is a ty p e o f g a r d e n w a ll b o n d in w h ic h th e s tr e tc h e r s a n d h e a d e r s a re la id o n t h e i r s id e s , w ith th e b a s e o f t h e s tr e t c h e r fa c in g o u tw a rd s . T h is g iv e s a w a ll w ith a n in te r n a l c a v ity b n d g e d b y t h e h e a d e rs , h e n c e th e n a m e . T h e m a in a d v a n ta g e o f th is b o n d is e c o n o m y in u se o f b ric k s , g iv in g a w a ll o f o n e b r ic k t h ic k n e s s w ith fe w e r b n c k s t h a n a s o lid b o n d . 252 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей R a t- tr a p b o n d w as in c o m m o n u se in E n g la n d f o r b u ild in g h o u s e s o f fe w e r t h a n th r e e s to re y s u p t o t h e t u r n o f t h e 2 0 th c e n tu r y a n d is to d a y s till u s e d in I n d ia a s a n e c o n o m ic a l b o n d , a s w e ll f o r th e in s u la tio n p r o p e r tie s o f f e r e d b y th e a ir c a v ity . A ls o , m a n y b r ic k w a lls s u r r o u n d in g k itc h e n g a r d e n s w e re d e s ig n e d w ith c a v itie s s o h o t a ir c o u ld c ir c u la te in th e w in te r , w a r m in g f r u it tr e e s o r o t h e r p r o d u c e s p r e a d a g a in s t th e w a lls, c a u s in g t h e m t o b l o o m e a r lie r a n d fo rc in g e a rly fru it p r o d u c tio n . I n U K b u ild in g y a rd s w h a t m a n y w o u ld re fe r t o a s a h o u s e b r ic k a common w ith la r g e r b r e e z e b lo c k - lik e m a te r ia ls b e in g solids M o r t a r is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s mud d u e t o its a p p e a r a n c e C o m m o n s u s u a lly f e a tu r e a frog, a n in d e n t in o n e is k n o w n as c a lle d s u r f a c e t h a t fa c e s u p d u r in g la y in g . T h is is p a c k e d w ith m u d as la y in g p r o g r e s s e s a n d h e lp s a d d la te r a l s t r e n g th to th e la y e r, as o p p o s e d to t h e v e rtic a l s tre n g th fo rm e d b y th e c o m p re ssiv e w e ig h t o f th e b ric k w o rk o n itself. Ties are m e ta l p ro d u c ts t h a t a re a p p ro x im a te ly th e le n g th o f a c o m m o n . T h e y a re u s e d to tie la y e rs o f b r ic k w o r k in to o n e a n o th e r . T h is is p a r tic u la r ly im p o r t a n t i f a b u ild in g is c o n s tr u c te d w ith a n in n e r a n d o u t e r w all f e a tu r in g a c a v ity w h e r e th e tie s w ill b e p la c e d th r o u g h t h e c a v ity b e tw e e n m o r t a r la y e rs in t h e tw o w a lls. T h is a llo w s t h e tw o w a lls t o f u n c t i o n b e t t e r a s o n e s tr u c tu r a l u n i t w ith o u t fillin g t h e c a v ity w ith a s o lid m a te r ia l a n d s o lo w e rin g its in su la tiv e p r o p e r tie s . T ie s a re s im p ly le n g th s o f s ta in le s s s te e l w ire , a r o u n d tw ic e a s th ic k a s th a t u s e d to f o r m a s te e l c o a t h a n g e r , a n d h a v e a lo o p a t e i t h e r e n d th a t is b u r ie d in th e m o r t a r as t h e w a ll p ro g re sse s. D u e t o b e in g sta in le s s a n d r e a s o n a b ly t h ic k , th e y a re a lso s o m e w h a t e x p e n s iv e . H o w e v e r , tie s m u s t b e s ta in le s s to av o id t h e m r o ttin g in th e a lk alin e c o n d itio n s c r e a te d b y th e c e m e n t in t h e m o r ta r . UNIT 11. BUILDING THE WALLS 253 SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 2 3 . L is te n to th e T e x t “ M a s o n r y W a lls ” . a ) A n sw er th e q u e stio n s th a t fo llo w . 1. W h y a re m a s o n ry w a lls u s e d in m u ltis to r e y e d b u ild in g s ? 2. W h a t m a te r ia ls a re m a s o n r y w a lls b u ilt o f? 3. W h e re a re c a v ity w alls u s e d ? 4 . W h a t is a h e a t- f lo w ra te o f c a v ity w alls? 5. W h a t ty p e o f fra m in g is u s e d w ith m a s o n r y c o n s tr u c tio n ? b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw ers w ith y o u r g ro u p m a tes an d T a p e sc r ip t 1 1 A o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u do n o t k n o w in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R etell th e T e x t about so m e sp ecific fea tu res o f th e foundations o f lo w -r is e b u ild in g s. d ) T e ll y o u r g r o u p m a te s a b o u t c a v ity w a lls b a se d o n th e in fo rm a tio n t o b e c o lle c te d . 2 4 . L is te n t o th e T e x t “V e n e e r M a s o n r y ” . a) A s y o u lis te n , m a k e n o te s under th e fo llo w in g h ea d in g s. 1 The structure of a masonry veneer wall 2 The construction of the brick veneer 3 The materials used for a masonry veneer wall 254I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 4 The wall insulation b ) C h e c k y o u r an sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s and T a p e sc r ip t 1 1 B o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u d o n o t k n o w in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t a m a so n r y v e n e e r . UNIT 12 FINISHING THE INSIDE SECTION 1 ffi VOCABULARY AND WORD STUDY 1. R e a d a n d m e m o r iz e th e a c tiv e v o c a b u la r y t o th e t e x t “ In te r io r F in ish e s o f C o m m e r c ia l a n d I n d u str ia l B u ild in g s” an d tr a n sla te th e g iv e n s e n te n c e s . 1 . gy p su m [ 'd j i p s a m ] n — п ри род н ы й ги п с gy p su m b oard — с у х а я ш т у к а т у р к а , г и п с о в а я с т е н о в а я плита Gypsum is u s e d in a w id e v a rie ty o f a p p lic a tio n s . T h e p a r t i t i o n gypsum board w a s fix e d o n tim b e r f r a m e w o rk . w a ll m a d e w ith 2 . r e a d ily [ 'r e d i l i ] adv — л е г к о , б ы с т р о , б е з т р у д а T h e o u ts ta n d in g c h a r a c te r is tic o f c o n c r e t e is t h a t it c a n b e m a n u f a c tu r e d easdy. 3. m e e t th e n eed s — у д о в л е т в о р я т ь п о т р е б н о с т я м A n a r e a o f d w e llin g s , h o w e v e r w e ll d e s ig n e d , is n o t b y its e lf s u f f ic ie n t to meet the needs o f th e in h a b ita n ts . 4. san d w ich p a n el [ 's a s n w id j.p a e n l] — м н о г о с л о й н а я п а н е л ь Sandwich panels a r e in c re d ib ly u s e fu l m a te r ia ls to f o r m s tr o n g lig h tw e ig h t s tru c tu re s u s e d m e v e ry d a y life. 256 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей 5 e n c lo su r e [ ш 'к і э и з э ] п — о б олочка, к о рп ус, ограж ден и е А s ig n ific a n t p o r tio n o f th e fie ld o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e re la te s to th e d e s ig n a n d o p e r a tio n o f th e b u ild in g 6 . g rou t [ 'g r a u t ] enclosure. n — ж идкий строительны й раствор grou t m ix — ц е м е н т н ы й р а с т в о р Grout is g e n e r a lly c o m p o s e d o f a m ix tu r e o f w a te r , c e m e n t, The grout mix s h o u ld h a v e h ig h s a n d a n d s o m e tim e s f in e g ra v e l. f lo w a n d s h r in k a g e p r o p e r tie s . 7. su sp e n d [ s a 's p e n d ] v — в е ш а т ь , п о д в е ш и в а т ь su sp e n d e d c e ilin g — п о д в е с н о й п о т о л о к T w o la ig e v e r tic a l r o d s a n c h o r e d in th e g ir d e r s w e re u s e d to suspend th e g ir d e r s e c tio n s f r o m th e o v e r h e a d tru s s . T h e p a r titio n s a r e fix e d t o the suspended ceilings. 8. tile [ 't a i l ] n v — кровельная черепица, облицовочная пли тка, каф ель; кры ть чер еп и ц ей , вы клады вать п л и т­ кам и c e r a m ic tile [ s s 'r a e m ik ] — к е р а м и ч е с к а я п л и т к а , ч е р е ­ пица vin yl c o m p o sitio n tile [ 'v a m l] — в и н и л о в а я п л и т к а tiles a re th e m a in b u ild in g m a te ria ls u s e d in The ceramic tiles o n th e f lo o r c a n n o t b e s c r a tc h e d e a s ily b y p e o p le w a lk in g o n th e m . Vinyl composition tiles h a v e h ig h r e s ilie n c e t o a b r a s io n a n d im p a c t d a m a g e . C e m e n t, b r ic k s a n d th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f b u ild in g s . 9. te r r a z z o [ t e 'r a r t s a u ] n — б е т о н т и п а “ т е р а ц ц о ” (с з а п о л ­ н и тел ем и з ц в етн о й к ам ен н о й к р о ш к и ), п о л и з б ето н а “те р а ц ц о ” W hen the terrazzo is th o r o u g h ly d ry , h e lp e r s g r in d it w ith а g n n d e r , w h ic h is s o m e w h a t lik e a f lo o r p o lis h e r , o n ly m u c h h e a v ie r. UNIT 12. FINISHING THE INSIDE I 257 10. e p o x y r e sin [l'p o k s i] — э п о к с и д н а я с м о л а Epoxy resin is a n e x c e p tio n a l a d h e s iv e f o r w o o d , m e ta l, g la ss, s t o n e , a n d s o m e p la s tic s . 11. d ryw all [,d r a i'w o :l] H a n g in g a n d fin is h in g n— ги п со к ар то н drywall r e q u ire s c e r t a i n skills. 12. fir e r e sista n c e — о г н е с т о й к о с т ь Fire resistance i n d ic a te s h o w w e ll a b u ild in g c o m p o n e n t h o ld s b a c k fire a n d p re v e n ts it fro m p e n e tra tin g fro m o n e r o o m to a n o th e r. n 13. c o a t [ 'k s u t ] v — слой , покры ти е; п окры вать, грунто­ вать fin ish c o a t — о т д е л о ч н ы й с л о й a p p ly c o a t — н а н о с и т ь с л о й , п о к р ы т и е , г р у н т sk im c o a t — н а к р ы в о ч н ы й с л о й ( т р е х с л о й н о й ш т у к а ­ турки ) T h is w a ll w ill n e e d tw o coats o f p a in t. Finish coat is th e la st coat applied o n th e s u rfa c e a f te r th e u n d e r - c o a t is p r o p e r ly d ry . Skim coat is a n id e a l m a te ria l t o c o v e r a n d le v e l d e fe c ts in c o n c r e te . 14. n a il [ 'n e i l ] n v — гвоздь; заб и в а ть гвозди s c r e w [s k ru :] Н е h a m m e re d nailed u p n v — ви н т, б олт, ш уруп; п р и в и н ч и вать a nail in to th e w a ll a n d h u n g a p ic tu r e o n it. W e t h e w in d o w s o f t h e o ld h o u s e . I n e e d f o u r s tr o n g f o r fix in g t h e c u p b o a r d t o t h e w a ll. H e screwed t h e screws h a n d le to th e d o o r. 15. s e c u r e [ s i 'k ju a ] v — у к р е п л я т ь , з а к р е п л я т ь , з а ф и к с и р о ­ вать A tta c h th e b e a m w ith w o o d s c re w s t h a t a re th e p r o p e r l e n g th p ro p e r ly 9 Зак 312 secure th e beam . to 258I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей 16. lim e [ 'la im ] п— известь lim e p u tty ['p A ti] — и з в е с т к о в о е т е с т о Lime h a s b e e n u s e d in b u ild in g te c h n iq u e s f o r o v e r 5 ,0 0 0 y ears. T h e p r o c e s s f o r c r e a tin g lime putty in v o lv e s th e c o m b i n a t i o n o f lim e c h a lk w ith w a te r to p r o d u c e a v a rie ty o f d if f e r e n t p r o d u c ts . 17. lath [1q:0] n — ш т у к а т у р н а я с е тк а (р еш етк а) la th n a il — ш т у к а т у р н ы й г в о з д ь T he new laths w ill t h e n b e p a in te d to m a tc h th e e x is tin g fin ish . Lath nails a re s ta n d a r d lo o k in g , w ith a lo n g s m o o t h s h a f t a n d a fla t h e a d , a n d c a n b e u s e d f o r a n u m b e r o f p u r p o s e s . 18. tra n sp a r e n t [ tr a e n s 'p a e r a n t] adj — п р о з р а ч н ы й tr a n slu c e n t [ tr a e n s 'lu :s n t] adj — п о л у п р о з р а ч н ы й G la s s is transparent b u t w o o d is o p a q u e . S o m e re c o m m e n d a tio n s w e re d e v e lo p e d f o r d e s ig n in g s h e e t gla ss in translucent s tr u c tu r e s in in d u s tr ia l a n d s o c ia l b u ild in g s . 19. d o o r fra m e — д в е р н а я к о р о б к а , р а м а If the doorframebreaks, th e r e is lim ite d o p p o r tu n ity f o r r e p a ir. 2 0 . ta p e r (in g ) [ Ч е ір э ( г ц ) ) ] adj — кон у со о б р азн ы й , суж и ва­ ю щ ийся к концу E a c h r e in fo rc e d c o n c r e te w all c o lu m n is m a d e u p o f f o u r c o lu m n s w ith f lo o r s la b s s p a n n in g b e tw e e n th e m . 2. tapering R e a d an d tr a n s la te t h e fo llo w in g in te r n a tio n a l w o r d s. L o o k up th e ir tr a n sc r ip tio n s in th e d ic tio n a r y i f n e c e s s a r y . M in d th e part o f sp eech . P e r f o r a t e v, s y n t h e t i c adj, i n s t i t u t i o n a l adj, v i n y l adj, c o m p o s itio n n, a d h e s iv e n adj, p r e v a le n t adj, s u b s tr a te n, a m a t e u r n adj, o r n a m e n t a t i o n n, i d e n tic a l adj, a c r y lic adj, l a m in a te v, o p tio n a l adj, c o n tra s t n, p r im itiv e adj, p e r f e c tio n n, in g r e d ie n t n. UNIT 12. FINISHING THE INSIDE 3. 259 M a tc h th e w o r d s w ith th e d e fin itio n s b e lo w . a) g ro u t b ) n a il 0 e n c lo s u r e g) la th c ) d ry w a ll d ) lim e e) s c re w h ) tile i) j ) te r r a z z o gypsum 1. a lo n g fla t n a rro w p ie c e o f w o o d /m e ta l u s e d t o s u p p o rt p la s te r 2. c o n c r e te flo o r fin is h c o n ta in in g c h i p s o f m a rb le 3. a w id e p la s te rb o a rd u s e d to c o v e r w a lls, c e ilin g s o r p a r titio n s 4 . a p ie c e o f b a k e d c la y u s e d f o r c o v e rin g ro o fs , w a lls, flo o rs e tc 5 . a t h i n m o r t a r u s e d t o fill c r a c k s in m a s o n r y 6. a s o ft w h ite c h a lk lik e s u b s ta n c e f ro m w h ic h p la s te r is m a d e 7 . e x t e r i o r a s s e m b ly e n c lo s in g th e i n t e r i o r s p a c e o f a b u ild in g 8 . a t h i n p o i n t e d p ie c e o f m e ta l f o r h a m m e r in g in to w o o d 9. a ty p e o f n a il t h a t is d riv e n in to s o m e th in g b y a tw is tin g a c tio n 10. 4. a w h ite s u b s ta n c e o b t a i n e d b y b u r n i n g lim e s to n e M a t c h th e E n g lish w ord c o m b in a tio n s w ith th e R u ssia n e q u iv a le n ts. 1. g ro u t m ix a. с у х а я ш т у к а т у р к а 2. t r a n s p a r e n t b. по д весн о й п о то л о к 3. e p o x y re s in c. о гн есто й к о сть 4 . fin is h c o a t d. ц е м е н т н ы й р а с т в о р 5. tr a n s lu c e n t e. и з в е с т к о в о е те с т о 6. g y p s u m b o a r d f. м н о г о с л о й н а я п а н е л ь 7. m e e t t h e n e e d s g. к е р а м и ч е с к а я п л и т к а 8 . s u s p e n d e d c e ilin g h. эп о к си д н а я см о л а 9. lim e p u t t y i. п р о з р а ч н ы й 10. c e r a m ic tile j. п о л у п р о з р а ч н ы й 11. fire r e s is ta n c e k. о т д е л о ч н ы й с л о й l. у д о в л е т в о р я т ь п о т р е б н о с т и 12. s a n d w ic h p a n e l 260 [ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей S. R e a d an d tra n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . P a y a tte n tio n t o th e m e a n in g o f th e w o r d s an d w ord co m b in a tio n s g iv e n b e lo w . I . a ) re a d y adj — г о т о в ы й b ) re a d y a t h a n d — н а х о д я щ и й с я п о д р у к о й c ) re a d in e s s п — г о т о в н о с т ь d ) in re a d in e s s — н а г о т о в е e ) r e a d ily adv — л е г к о , б е з т р у д а I. T h e e v a lu a tio n o f site re a d in e ss is n e c e ssa ry t o id e n tify a sp e c ts o f th e s ite t h a t m a y a f f e c t a p r o je c t o u tc o m e . 2. A w e ll- b u ilt b ir d h o u s e s h o u ld b e d u r a b le , r a i n p r o o f a n d r e a d ily a c c e s s ib le . 3. T h e e x c a v a to r is r e a d y t o d ig o n t h e c o n s tr u c tio n site . 4. W a te r a n d s e w e r p i p e s w e re s ta c k e d in r e a d in e ss f o r b u ild in g c o n s tr u c tio n . 5. P a lm c o m p u tin g d e v ic e s a r e r e a d y a t h a n d . 6. R e a d y - m ix c o n c r e te h e lp s t o re d u c e c o n s tr u c tio n - s ite p o llu tio n . 7. B ric k la y e rs d e s ire a m o r t a r n o t to b e s tic k y , e n a b lin g t h e b r ic k la y e r t o r e a d ily tr a n s f e r t h e m ix e d m o r ta r f r o m t h e s u rfa c e o f h is tro w e l o n t o th e m a s o n r y e le m e n ts b e in g laid. I I . a) f r a m e n — к о н с т р у к ц и я , с о о р у ж е н и е , к а р к а с , р а м а b ) fra m e o f r o o f — с т р о п и л ь н а я с и с т е м а к р ы ш и c ) r o o f fra m in g — н е с у щ и е к о н с т р у к ц и и к р ы ш и d ) fra m e w o r k п — р а м н а я к о н с т р у к ц и я , к а р к а с e ) w ith in t h e f r a m e w o r k o f — в р а м к а х , в п р е д е л а х ч е г о - л . 1. T h is h o u s e u se s t r u s s e s f o r t h e r o o f fra m in g . T ru s s e s a re p r e ­ fa b r ic a te d , tn a n g u la te d w o o d e n s tr u c tu r e s u s e d to s u p p o r t th e ro o f. T h e a lte r n a tiv e is to b u ild u p t h e fr a m e o f t h e r o o f w ith 2 x 8 s a n d 2 x 1 0 s. 2. T h e in d ic a te d c i r c u m s ta n c e s s h o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d in d e s ig n w ith in t h e f r a m e w o r k o f th e g e o te c h n ic a l s y s te m . 3. I f y o u c h o o s e to b u ild a t i m b e r fr a m e h o m e , y o u r first c h o ic e is w h e t h e r to c u t th e fr a m e o n o r o f f site . I f y o u c u t y o u r o w n fr a m e o ffs ite , d o n ’t fo rg e t t o b u d g e t tim e a n d m o n e y f o r g e t t i n g a ll o f t h e fr a m e tim b e r s t o t h e b u ild in g s ite . 4 . T h e b lo c k o f o ffic e b u ild in g s w a s b u ilt o f c o n c r e te o n a s te e l fr a m e w o r k . UNIT 12. FINISHING THE INSIDE 6. J 261 R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g g r o u p s o f se n te n c e s p ayin g a tte n tio n to th e w o rd s in ita lic s w h ic h c a n fu n c tio n a s a n o u n an d a v e r b , o r a verb a n d a n a d je c tiv e , o r a n o u n an d a n a d je c tiv e , w ith th e sa m e fo r m . T h e y c a n h a v e sim ila r o r d iffe r e n t m e a n in g s. L o o k up y o u r d ic tio n a r y if n e c e s s a r y . tile. tile flo o rin g . 1. a. T h e y g a v e i n s tr u c tio n s fo r in s ta llin g c e r a m ic w a ll b . H e a d d e d b e a u ty t o h is h o m e w ith n e w tile a w a ll. coat o f b a s e p a i n t d rie s , a p p ly a n o t h e r o n e . b I t is v e ry c o ld , s o w e a r a h e a v y coat. c. Coatxht s u rfa c e w ith tw o la y e rs o f p a in t. 3 a M a k e th e w in d o w s secure b e fo re le a v in g t h e h o u s e . b . T h e y c o u ld secure t h e c o n n e c t i n g p la te s to t h e b e a m s . c. T h is c o m p a n y c a n secure a g o o d c iv il e n g in e e r in g jo b . 4 . a. T h e y c o u ld n o t taper t h e w id th o f a b e a m a t e i t h e r e n d . b . T h e s tr u c tu r e s h a v e a slig h t in w a r d taper. c . T h e y a re s tu d y in g th e a x ia l b e h a v io u r o f taper b e a m s . c . T h e y g a v e s o m e a d v ic e h o w to 2 . a. A f te r t h e firs t 5. a. T h e g row l j o i n t s h a v e b e e n fille d . b. W ip e tile s w ith a d a m p c lo th to re m o v e e x c e s s growl. c. Grout all jo i n t s o t h e r t h a n a r e a s t h a t n e e d t o b e le ft as e x p a n s io n jo in ts . 7. U s in g a d ic tio n a r y c o m p le te th e c h a r t w ith th e a p p r o p r ia te w o rd fo r m . In s o m e c a s e s th e r e m a y b e m o r e th a n o n e a n sw e r . Verb 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Noun Adjective dividable Adverb secure insulation flexibly useful resist comparative suspension directly binder 262I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей W SECTION 2 GRAMMAR 8 . R e a d an d tr a n sla te th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s p a y in g a tte n tio n to th e m e a n in g an d u se o f th e m o d a l v e r b s an d th e ir eq u iv a le n t form s. 1. F lo o r in g m u s t s u p p o r t w h a te v e r lo a d s a r e t o b e p l a c e d w ith in t h e s tr u c tu r e , a n d it m u s t t r a n s m it its lo a d t o t h e s tr u c tu r a l fr a m e . 2. M a n y n e w f u n c tio n a l b u ild in g s h a d t o b e b u ilt q u ic k ly a n d c h e a p ly . 3 A g o o d p a in t s h o u ld stic k w ell t o th e su rfa c e a n d s h o u ld b e a b le to se a l th e p o r o u s s u b s tr a ta . 4. T h e q u a n tity su r v e y o r e m e r g e d in th e la te 1 9 th c e n tu r y as a p r o f e s s io n a l s p e c ia lis t in b u ild in g f in a n c e , w h o w a s a b le t o a c c u r a te ly p r e d ic t th e c o s t o f a p r o je c t. 5. A n e n tir e h o u s e c a n b e d r y w a lle d in o n e o r tw o d a y s b y tw o e x p e n e n c e d d ry w a lle rs, a n d d ry w a ll is e a sy e n o u g h to u se th a t i t c a n b e in s ta lle d b y m a n y a m a te u r h o m e c a r p e n te r s . 6 . E a c h c o a t s h o u ld b e p e r m i t t e d t o d r y t h o r o u g h ly b e f o r e th e n e x t c o a t is a p p lie d . 7. T h e s e p a r titio n s a re e x p e n s iv e c o m p a r e d w ith g y p s u m b o a r d a n d m u s t b e m o v e d to j u s tif y t h e g r e a t e r in itia l c o s t. 8. H u n d r e d s o f n e w a p a r tm e n t h o m e s a r e to b e b u ilt f o r th e p o p u la tio n . 9. T h e p la s te r e d s u rfa c e s m a y b e f in is h e d in a v a r ie ty o f fo rm s. 10. M o s t o f t h e e a r ly h o u s e s b u ilt in A m e r ic a w e re s u ite d to f a r m life , as it w a s n o t u n til c itie s b e c a m e m a n u f a c tu r in g c e n tr e s t h a t c o l o n i s t s c o u l d s u rv iv e w i t h o u t f a r m i n g a s t h e i r m a jo r o c c u p a tio n . 9 . D e f in e th e p art o f sp e e c h an d th e fu n c tio n o f th e w o r d s w ith th e - e d e n d in g in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . 1. V e ry e a r ly in t h e h is to r y o f G r e e k a r c h ite c tu r e p l a s te r o f a fin e w h ite lim e s tu c c o w a s u s e d , s u c h h a s b e e n f o u n d a t M y c e n a e . 2. F o r t h e i r fin e s t w o r k t h e E g y p tia n s u s e d a p l a s te r m a d e f r o m c a lc in e d g y p s u m ju s t lik e p la t t e r o f P a n s o f t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , a n d UNIT 12. FINISHING THE INSIDE 1 263 t h e i r m e th o d s o f p la s te r in g o n re e d s r e s e m b le in e v e ry w a y o u r la th , p la s te r , flo a t a n d s e t w o rk . 3. T h e r e a re tw o m a in m e th o d s u s e d in c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e in t e n o r w a lls o f m o d e m h o m e s , d ry w a ll a n d p la s te r. 4 . T h e r e m o v a b le p a n e ls a re s u p p o r te d o n a g r id o f f o rm e d s h e e t-m e ta l te e b a rs w h ic h a re s u s p e n d e d b y w ire s. 5. S p a c e d iv is io n s y s te m s in th e s e b u ild in g s m a k e u s e o f g y p s u m b o a r d p a r t i t i o n s , u s u a lly a p p lie d t o a f r a m e w o r k o f f o r m e d s h e e t - m e t a l m e m b e r s a tta c h e d t o th e b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e . 6 . W h e r e a c c e s s ib ility is n o t im p o r t a n t a n d a s m o o t h fin is h is d e s ire d , s u s p e n d e d g y p s u m b o a r d c e ilin g s c a n b e u se d . 7. D ry w a ll c o n s tru c tio n b e c a m e p re v a le n t a s a s p e e d ie r a lte r n a tiv e to u s in g p la s t e r b a s e d i n t e r i o r fin is h te c h n iq u e s , w h ic h in v o lv e d fo rc e fu lly s p re a d in g a s u b s tra te o f c o a rse p la s te r o n t o t h e w all l a th - w o r k b e fo re fin a lly a p p ly in g t h e s m o o th e r fin is h c o a t , e a c h la y e r a d d e d i n s u c c e s s io n a n d a ll b y h a n d . 8. W h ile m o s t to o ls h a v e r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d o v e r t h e c e n tu r ie s , d e v e lo p m e n ts in m o d e m m a te r ia ls h a v e le d t o s o m e c h a n g e s . 9 . C o n c r e te b lo c k is u s e d i n u n f in is h e d s p a c e s a n d fo r fire -re s is tiv e p a rtitio n s . 10. T h e p y ra m id s i n E g y p t c o n t a i n p la s te rw o rk e x e c u te d a t le a s t f o u r th o u s a n d y e a rs a g o . 10. Id en tify th e - m g fo r m s an d tra n sla te t h e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . 1. A f te r r e m o v in g t h e o ld p a i n t , th e c l e a n e d s u rfa c e is g iv e n tw o o r t h r e e c o a ts o f th e p a i n t , to o b t a i n th e d e s ir e d fin is h . 2 . B e in g p e r m e a b le t o m o is tu r e , e m u l s i o n p a in ts c a n b e a p p lie d o n w e t s u rfa c e s . 3. S p a c e - d iv is io n s y s te m s in t h e s e b u ild in g s a re r e a d ily d e m o lis h e d a n d re b u ilt a t r e la tiv e ly lo w c o s t, m e e tin g th e n e e d f o r fle x ib ility in s u c h b u ild in g s . 4. H a v in g o b t a i n e d th e n e c e s s a iy re s u lts , w e s to p p e d o u r e x p e r im e n ta l w o rk . 5 . M u d p la s te r is g e n e ra lly a p p lie d i n t w o c o a ts , th e first c o a t b e in g 13 m m th ic k w h ile th e th ic k n e s s o f th e s e c o n d c o a t is k e p t 6 m m . 6. D ry w a ll fa s te n e rs a re g a m in g p o p u la n ty in b o t h re s id e n tia l a n d c o m m e r c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n . 7. T h e s u rfa c e o f th e p a t c h e s o f p l a s t e r se rv e s a s g a u g e s f o r m a in ta in in g e v e n th ic k n e s s o f th e p la s t e r b e i n g a p p lie d . 8. P a i n t i n g e n a b le s t h e m a s o n r y a n d c o n c r e te w o r k to re s is t 264[Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей d is in te g r a tio n , th e r e b y e x te n d in g t h e life o f t h e s tr u c tu r e . 9 . A fte r t h e s h e e ts a re s e c u re d to th e w a ll s tu d s o r c e ilin g jo is ts , th e s e a m s b e tw e e n d ry w a ll s h e e ts a re c o n c e a le d u s in g j o i n t ta p e , a n d se v e ra l la y e rs o f p a i n t c o m p o u n d . 10. D e p e n d in g u p o n th e a v a ila b ility o f th e m a te ria ls , t h e c h o ic e o f p l a s te r fo r a n y p a r tic u la r l o c a tio n is g o v e rn e d b y w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a n d th e fin is h d e s ire d . 1 1 . R e a d and tr a n s la te th e follow in g s e n te n c e s in w h ic h th e In fin itiv e is u se d in d iffe r e n t fu n c tio n s. 1. T h e su rfa c e t o b e p la s te r e d is p r e p a r e d in th e s a m e m a n n e r a s t h a t fo r lim e o r c e m e n t p la s te r. 2. T o e n s u re t h e r e q u ire d t h ic k n e s s t h e p a tc h e s o f p l a s t e r a re a p p l i e d h o r iz o n ta lly . 3. T h e m o s t im p o rta n t p u rp o s e o f a d d in g p ig m e n t in a p a in t is t o m a k e a n o p a q u e c o a tin g t o h id e t h e s u rfa c e t o b e p a in te d . 4 . D u r in g th e p ro c e s s o f fin ish in g , a s o lu tio n o f lim e p u t t y is a p p lie d o n t h e s u rfa c e t o m a k e th e su rfa c e s m o o th a n d w o rk a b le . 5. P la ste rin g is r e q u ire d to p ro v id e a s a tis fa c to ry b a s e f o r d e c o r a tin g th e s u rfa c e b y w h ite - w a s h in g o r p a in tin g . 6 . I n d ry w a ll a s p e c ia liz e d f o r m o f s h e e t r o c k k n o w n a s g re e n b o a rd is s c re w e d o n to t h e w a ll-fra m e s o f th e h o m e t o fo rm th e i n te r io r w a lls. 7. P a in tin g w ith t h e s p ra y g u n is c o n s id e r e d t o b e a h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d a n d e ffic ie n t m e th o d o f a p p ly in g a ll ty p e s o f p r o te c tiv e c o a tin g s . 8. P la s te r in g is th e p ro c e s s o f c o v e rin g ro u g h s u rfa c e s w ith a p la s tic m a te r ia l t o o b ta in a n e v e n , s m o o t h a n d d u ra b le su rfa c e . 9. T h e s e a m s a re c o v e re d w ith m e s h t a p e a n d t h e n th e s e a m s a n d t h e s c re w h e a d s a r e c o n c e a le d w ith t h e d ry w a ll c o m p o u n d t o m a k e th e w a ll s e e m a s o n e u n i f o r m p ie c e . 10. T h is ty p e o f s h e e t r o c k is d e s ig n e d t o a b s o rb th e m o is tu re o f t h e p la s te r a n d a llo w it t o c lin g b e t t e r b e fo re it se ts. 1 2 . U s e th e w ord g iv e n an d o th e r w o r d s to c o m p le te th e s e c o n d s e n te n c e s o th a t it m e a n s th e sa m e a s th e fir st o n e . Y o u m u st u se b e tw e e n tw o an d fiv e w o r d s, in c lu d in g th e w o r d g iv e n . 1 I t lo o k s a s if t h e y le ft la s t n ig h t. seem T h e y ________________________________________la st n ig h t. UNIT 12. FINISHING THE INSIDE 265 2. P le a s e s in g u s a n o t h e r s o n g , J o h n . persuade T h e y t r ie d t o _____________________________________a n o th e r so n g . 3. T h e e x p la n a tio n w as so c o m p lic a te d t h a t I c o u ld n ’t u n d e rs ta n d it. too T h e e x p la n a tio n ________________________________ t o u n d e rs ta n d . 4. T h e y say h e ’s liv in g in M o s c o w . said H e _____________________________________in M o sc o w . 5. H e ’s t o o y o u n g t o s e e th e film . enough H e is n ’t ________________________________________to se e th e film . 6 . 1 d o n ’t s u p p o s e y o u k n o w w h e r e h e liv e s, d o y o u ? happen D o _____________________________________w h e re h e lives? 7. W h y d id y o u a llo w th e m t o le a v e e a r ly y e s te rd a y ? let Y o u s h o u ld n ’t __________________________________ e a rly y esterd ay . 8. O l d e r p e o p le o f t e n h a v e d if f ic u lty f in d in g a j o b . difficult I t ’s o f t e n _____________________________________ f in d a jo b . 9. I f I w e re y o u , K a te , I ’d w e a r a d if f e r e n t p a i r o f s h o e s. advised H e ___________________________________ a d iffe re n t p a ir o f sh o es. 10. I ’d r a t h e r y o u c a m e a t six o ’c lo c k . prefer I _________________________________________ c o m e a t six o ’clo ck . здесь должны быть стр. 266 и 267 268 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей Floor finishes in commercial and institutional uses make considerable use of synthetic-fibre carpeting and vinyl composition tile. In areas of higher traffic harder surfaces may be used, for example, cut stone tiles of marble or granite, ceramic tile applied with epoxy adhesive to the substrate or terrazzo. Terrazzo is made in two ways, traditional and thin-set. In the traditional form a four-centimetre layer of cement and sand grout is poured over the substrate; a grid of metal divider strips to control shrinkage cracks is set on the hardened surface, and grout mix of coloured cement and marble chips is poured between the stnps. After hardening, the surface is machine polished to expose the maible chips and metal dividers. Thin-set terrazzo is made by placing the metal strips and pouring the binder and marble chips onto the subfloor without the underbed of cement and sand. It is generally possible only when epoxy resins are used in place of cement binders. Terrazzo is available in many colours, and it forms a hard, smooth, and durable surface that is easily cleaned. 15. Find in Text 12A the paragraphs saying about different types of partitions and translate them into Russian. 16. Read aloud paragraph 3. 17. Explain the following references. a) They are readily demolished and rebuilt at low cost What does the pronoun they refer to? b) They are often used for fire-resistivUprotective enclosures What does the pronoun they refer to? c) Ceiling finishes in these buildings create a sandwich space What does the demonstrative adjective these refer to? d) to change the service elements located above it What does the pronoun it refer to? . UNIT 12 FINISHING THE INSIDE 269 e ) it f o r m s a h a r d , s m o o t h , a n d d u r a b le s u r f a c e t h a t is e a sily c le a n e d . W h a t d o e s th e p r o n o u n 18. it r e f e r to ? U n d e r lin e o r m ark th e m a in id e a s o f T e x t 1 2 A an d r e te ll it 19. S k im T e x t 1 2 B “ D r y w a ll” an d try t o u n d e r sta n d w h a t it is a b o u t a n d w h a t in fo r m a tio n is a lr e a d y k n o w n to y o u . • TEXT 12B D ryw all D r y w a ll is t h e t e r m u s e d f o r a c o m m o n m e th o d o f c o n s tr u c tin g in t e r i o r w a lls a n d c e ilin g s u s in g p a n e ls m a d e o f g y p s u m p la s te r p r e s s e d b e tw e e n tw o th i c k s h e e ts o f p a p e r , t h e n k iln d r ie d . M a n y s u c h p a n e ls a r e m a d e w ith fib e rg la s s in s te a d o f p a p e r t o p r e v e n t m o ld g r o w th , w h ic h is c o m m o n w ith p a p e r t h a t h a s b e e n e x p o s e d t o w a te r d u e to p l u m b in g le a k s o r f lo o d s . D r y w a ll c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d g lo b a lly f o r t h e f in is h c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i n t e r i o r w a lls a n d c e ilin g s . D r y w a ll c o n s t r u c t i o n b e c a m e p r e v a le n t a s a s p e e d ie r a lte r n a tiv e t o u s in g p la s te r - b a s e d i n te r io r f in is h t e c h n iq u e s , w h ic h in v o lv e d fo rc e fu lly s p r e a d in g a s u b s tr a te o f c o a r s e p la s te r , k n o w n a s t h e b a s e m a d e u p o f t h e s c r a tc h c o a t a n d b r o w n c o a t , o n t o t h e w a ll la th - w o r k b e f o r e f in a lly a p p ly in g th e s m o o t h e r f in is h c o a t, each la y e r a d d e d in s u c c e s s io n and a ll b y h a n d . D r y w a ll, b y c o n tr a s t to p la s te r, r e q u ir e s h a n d fin is h in g o n ly a t t h e f a s te n e r s a n d j o in ts . T h e d ry w a ll p r o c e s s r e q u ir e s le ss l a b o u r a n d d r y in g ti m e , l e n d in g its n a m e t o t h e p a n e ls u s e d in t h e a sse m b ly . A s o p p o s e d t o a w e e k - lo n g p l a s te r a p p lic a tio n , a n e n tir e h o u s e c a n b e d ry w a lle d in o n e o r tw o d a y s b y tw o e x p e r ie n c e d d ry w a lle rs, a n d d r y w a ll is e a s y e n o u g h t o u s e t h a t it c a n b e in s ta lle d b y m a n y a m a t e u r h o m e c a r p e n te r s . I n la r g e - s c a le c o m m e r c ia l c o n s tr u c tio n , t h e w o r k o f in sta llin g a n d f in is h in g d ry w a ll is o f te n sp lit b e tw e e n t h e d ry w a ll m e c h a n ic s , o r h a n g e r s w h o in s ta ll t h e w a llb o a r d a n d t h e 270 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей t a p e r s a n d m u d m e n , o r f lo a t c r e w w h o f in is h t h e j o i n t s a n d c o v e r t h e n a ilh e a d s w ith d ry w a ll c o m p o u n d . D r y w a ll is c u t to s iz e u s in g a la rg e T - s q u a r e b y s c o r in g th e p a p e r o n t h e fr o n t s id e ( u s u a lly w h ite ) w ith a u tility k n ife b r e a k in g t h e s h e e t a lo n g t h e c u t , s c o r in g E x am p le o f d ry w a ll t h e p a p e r b a c k in g , a n d fin a lly b r e a k in g h u n g v e r tic a lly w ith th e s h e e t in t h e o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n . S m a ll jo i n t co m p o u n d f e a tu r e s s u c h as h o le s f o r o u tle ts a n d lig h t s w itc h e s a r e u s u a lly c u t u s in g a k e y h o le sa w o r a s m a ll h i g h - s p e e d b it in a r o ta r y to o l. D r y w a ll is th e n fix ed to th e w all s tru c tu re w ith n a ils, g lu e o r d ry w a ll screw s. D ry w a ll fa s te n e rs a re g a in in g p o p u la n ty in b o t h r e s id e n tia l a n d c o m m e r c ia l c o n s tr u c tio n . D ry w a ll f a s te n e r s a re u s e d f o r s u p p o r tin g i n te r io r d ry w a ll c o m e r s a n d r e p la c in g t h e n o n - s t r u c t u r a l , w o o d o r m e ta l b lo c k in g t h a t tr a d itio n a lly w a s u s e d t o in sta ll d ry w a ll. T h e ir f u n c tio n se rv e s t o sa v e o n m a te r ia l a n d la b o u r e x p e n s e s , t o in c r e a s e e n e r g y e f f ic ie n c y , a n d to m a k e p lu m b in g in s ta lla tio n s im p le r . A f te r t h e s h e e ts a r e s e c u r e d t o th e w a ll s tu d s o r c e ilin g jo is ts , th e s e a m s b e tw e e n d ry w a ll s h e e ts a re c o n c e a le d u s in g j o i n t t a p e , a n d s e v e ra l la y e rs o f t h e c o m p o u n d s o m e tim e s c a lle d m u d . T h is c o m p o u n d is a ls o a p p l i e d t o a n y s c r e w h o le s o r d e fe c ts . A lte r n a tiv e ly , f o r a b e t t e r f in is h th e e n tir e w a ll m a y b e g iv e n a s k im c o a t, a t h i n la y e r o f f in is h in g c o m p o u n d , t o m in im is e th e v isu a l d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n t h e p a p e r a n d m u d d e d a re a s a f te r p a in tin g . A n o t h e r s im ila r sk im c o a tin g is a lw a y s d o n e in a p r o c e s s c a lle d v e n e e r p la s te r in g , a lth o u g h it is d o n e slig h tly t h ic k e r . V e n e e r in g u s e s a slig h tly d iffe re n t s p e c ia lis e d s e ttin g c o m p o u n d (f in is h p la s te r) t h a t c o n ta in s g y p su m a n d lim e p u tty . T h is a p p lic a tio n u s e s b lu e b o a r d w h ic h h a s sp e c ia l tr e a te d p a p e r to a c c e le ra te th e se ttin g o f th e g y p su m p l a s te r c o m p o n e n t. T h is s e ttin g h a s le ss s h r in k a g e t h a n t h e a ir - d r y c o m p o u n d s u s e d i n d ry w a ll, s o it o n ly r e q u ir e s o n e c o a t. B lu e b o a r d h a s s q u a r e e d g e s r a th e r t h a n t h e t a p e r e d - e d g e d ry w a ll b o a r d s . T h e ta p e r e d d ry w a ll b o a r d s a r e u s e d to c o u n te r s in k th e ta p e in ta p e d UNIT 12. FINISHING THE INSIDE 271 jo i n t i n g w h e re a s t h e t a p e in v e n e e r p l a s te r in g is b u r i e d b e n e a t h a level su rfa c e . 20. G iv e a b r ie f o v e r v ie w o f th e str u c tu r e a n d c o n te n ts o f T e x t 12B. R e la te e a c h h e a d in g t o th e c o r r e sp o n d in g p a r a g r a p h . a ) T h e d ry w a ll in s ta lla tio n . b ) V e n e e r p la s te rin g . c ) T h e tr a d e w o rk e rs in s ta llin g d ry w a ll. d ) D ry w a ll fin is h in g . e ) T h e a r e a s i n w h ic h d ry w a ll is u s e d . 21. C o m p le te th e s e n te n c e s ch o o sin g th e b e s t v a r ia n t a cc o r d in g to T e x t 12B. 1) G y p s u m p l a s t e r p a n e ls a r e m a d e w ith a ) p a p e r. b ) fib e rg la ss. c ) c la y . 2 ) T h e d ry w a ll p r o c e s s r e q u ire s a) m u c h la b o u r. b ) p la s t e r fin is h in g . c ) m a n u a l fin is h in g . 3 ) A h o u s e c a n b e d ry w a lle d b y a ) c a r p e n te r s . b ) h a n g e rs . c ) ta p e rs . 4 ) D ry w a ll is c u t t o s iz e u s in g a ) a h ig h - s p e e d b it. b ) a k e y h o le saw . c ) a u tility k n ife . 2 72J 5) Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей F in is h p la s te r c o n ta in s a) c la y . b ) lim e . c ) g y p s u m a n d lim e p u tty . 22. R e a d T e x t 1 2 C “ P la ste r w o r k ” an d find th e a n sw e r s t o t h e s e q u e stio n s. D is c u s s th e m w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s. a) W h a t d o e s p la s te r w o r k re f e r t o ? b ) W h a t is th e p ro c e s s o f c r e a tin g p la s te r w o r k c a lle d ? c ) W h y is p la s te r w o r k r e g a r d e d as o n e o f t h e m o s t a n c ie n t o f b u ild in g te c h n iq u e s ? d ) W h a t w e re a p la s te r e r ’s to o ls in E g y p t? e) W h e r e w a s p la s te r o f a fin e w h ite lim e s tu c c o u s e d ? 1) W h a t a re th e c h a n g e s in m o d e m p l a s te r e r s ’ to o ls ? g) W h a t a re sp e c ific f e a tu r e s o f d ry w a ll a n d p la s te r? h) W h a t a re t h e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n v e n e e r p la s te r in g a n d th e d ry w all m e th o d ? • TEXT 12C Plasterw ork P la s te r w o r k r e fe rs t o c o n s tr u c tio n o r o r n a m e n t a t i o n d o n e w ith p la s te r , s u c h a s a la y e r o f p la s te r o n a n i n te r io r w a ll o r p la s te r d e c o r a tiv e m o ld in g s o n c e ilin g s o r w a lls. T h is is a lso s o m e tim e s c a lle d p a rg e tin g . T h e p ro c e ss o f c re a tin g p la s te rw o rk c a lle d p la ste rin g h a s b e e n u s e d in b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r c e n tu r ie s . P la s te r w o r k is o n e o f th e m o s t a n c ie n t o f b u ild in g te c h n iq u e s . E v id e n c e sh o w s t h a t th e d w e llin g s o f p r im itiv e m a n w e re e r e c te d in a sim p le f a s h io n w ith s tic k s a n d p la s te r e d w ith m u d . T h e p y r a m id s in E g y p t c o n t a i n p la s te r w o r k e x e c u te d a t le a s t f o u r t h o u s a n d y e a rs a g o , p ro b a b ly m u c h e a rlie r, a n d y e t h a r d a n d d u r a b le a t th e p r e s e n t tim e . F r o m r e c e n t d is c o v e rie s it h a s b e e n a s c e r ta in e d th a t th e to o ls o f t h e p l a s te r e r o f t h a t tim e w e re p r a c tic a lly id e n tic a l in d e s ig n , s h a p e a n d p u r p o s e w ith t h o s e u s e d t o d a y . F o r t h e ir fin e s t w o r k t h e . UNIT 12 FINISHING THE INSIDE E g y p tia n s u s e d a p la s te r m a d e fro m c a lc in e d g y p s u m j u s t lik e p la s te r o f P a ris o f th e p r e s e n t ti m e , a n d th e i r m e th o d s o f p la s te rin g o n re e d s re s e m b le in e v e r y w a y o u r la th , p la s te r , flo a t a n d s e t w o rk . H a ir w a s in t r o d u c e d t o s t r e n g t h e n th e m a te r ia l. V ery ea rly in th e h is to ry o f G re e k a r c h ite c tu r e p la s t e r o f a f in e w h ite lim e stu c c o w as u s e d , s u c h h a s b e e n fo u n d a t M y c e n a e . T h e a rt h ad A plasterer covering a wall, using a hawk (in his left hand) and float (in his right hand) r e a c h e d p e r f e c tio n i n G r e e c e m o re th a n five c e n tu r ie s b e fo re C h r is t, a n d p la s t e r w a s fre q u e n tly u s e d t o c o v e r te m p le s e x te rn a lly a n d in te rn a lly , in s o m e c a se s e v e n w h e re th e b u ild in g w a s o f m a r b le . I t f o r m e d a s p le n d id g r o u n d fo r d e c o ra tiv e p a in tin g . T o o ls a n d m a te r ia ls in c lu d e tro w e ls , flo a ts , h a m m e r s , s c re e d s , s c r a tc h in g to o ls , u tility k n iv e s , la th s , l a t h n a ils , lim e , s a n d , h a ir, p l a s t e r o f P a ris , a v a rie ty o f c e m e n ts , a n d v a r io u s i n g r e d ie n ts to f o r m c o l o u r w a s h e s . W h ile m o s t to o ls h a v e r e m a in e d u n c h a n g e d o v e r t h e c e n tu r ie s , d e v e lo p m e n ts in m o d e r n m a t e n a l s h a v e le d to s o m e c h a n g e s . T ro w e ls c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m s te e l a re a v a ila b le in a p o l y c a r b o n a te m a te r ia l t h a t a llo w s th e a p p lic a tio n o f c e r t a i n n e w a c r y lic - b a s e d m a te r ia ls w ith o u t s ta in in g th e f in is h . F lo a ts tra d itio n a lly m a d e o f tim b e r are o fte n fin is h e d w ith a la y e r o f s p o n g e o r e x p a n d e d p o ly s ty re n e . T h e re a re tw o m a in m e th o d s u s e d in c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e in te rio r w alls o f m o d e m h o m e s , d ry w all a n d p la s te r. In d ry w all a sp e c ia liz e d fo rm o f s h e e t r o c k k n o w n a s g re e n b o a rd (y c le p t b e c a u s e o n th e o u te r p a p e r c o a tin g is g r e e n is h ) is s c re w e d o n to t h e w a ll- f r a m e s (s tu d s ) o f t h e h o m e to f o r m t h e in t e r i o r w alls. A t th e p la c e w h e re t h e tw o e d g e s o f w a llb o a rd s m e e t t h e r e is a s e a m . T h e s e s e a m s a re c o v e re d w ith m e sh ta p e a n d th e n th e s e a m s a n d th e s c re w h e a d s a re c o n c e a le d w ith th e d ry w a ll c o m p o u n d to m a k e t h e w a ll s e e m as o n e u n ifo rm 274 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей p ie c e . L a te r th is is p a i n t e d o r w a llp a p e r e d o v e r t o h id e t h e w o rk . T h is p r o - c e s s is c a lle d ta p in g a n d th o s e w h o u s e d ry w a ll a r e k n o w n a s ta p e rs . V e n e e r p la s te r in g d iffe rs f r o m th e d ry w a ll m e th o d i n a n u m b e r o f w a y s. T h e tw o m o s t n o ta b le d if f e r e n c e s a r e t h a t a t h i n p l a s te r c o a t c o v e rs th e e n tir e w all a n d n o t ju s t th e s e a m s , a n d s e c o n d ly th e d ry w a ll c o m p o u n d is a th i c k p a s te w h e r e p la s t e r m e t h o d u s e s a g r e a t d e a l o f w a te r a n d is a p p lie d v e r y w e t. A n o t h e r d if f e r e n c e is t h a t w alls in te n d e d to b e p la s te re d are h a n g e d w ith b lu e b o a rd ( n a m e d as s u c h f o r t h e in d u s tr y s t a n d a r d o f th e o u t e r p a p e r b e in g b lu e g re y in c o lo u r ) . T h is ty p e o f s h e e t r o c k is d e s ig n e d t o a b s o r b s o m e o f th e m o is tu r e o f t h e p l a s t e r a n d a llo w s it t o c lin g b e t t e r b e f o r e it s ets. P la s te r in g is a lso a o n e - s h o t o n e - c o a t a p p l ic a tio n ; t a p in g u s u a lly r e q u ir e s s a n d in g a n d t h e n a d d in g a n a d d i t i o n a l c o a t s in c e th e c o m p o u n d s h r in k s as it d rie s . F r o m a s u p p ly s id e th e c o s t o f p la s te r a n d d ry w a ll a re a p p r o x im a te ly t h e s a m e , b u t th e la b o u r c o s t o f p la s te r in g is u s u a lly m u c h g r e a te r. SECTION 4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING 23. L is t e n to th e T e x t “ I n t e r io r F in is h e s o f R e s id e n t ia l B u ild in g s” . a) A n sw e r th e q u e stio n s th a t foD ow . 1. W h a t d o in t e r i o r f in is h e s d e f in e ? 2 . W h a t is th e m o s t w id e ly u s e d w a ll fin is h ? 3 . H o w is w e t g y p s u m p l a s te r c a s t? 4 . W h a t a r e a s is g y p s u m b o a r d u s e d in ? 5 . W h a t a re th e fin is h e s o f d o o r s ? 6 . W h e r e a r e p la s tic l a m in a te s u s e d ? 7 . W h a t fin is h e s a r e u s e d f o r flo o rs? UNIT 12. FINISHINGTHEINSIDE 275 b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw e r s w ith y o u r g r o u p m a te s an d T a p e sc r ip t 1 2 A o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u d o n o t know in th e d ictio n a ry . c ) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t d ifferen t ty p e s o f in te r io r fin ish es. d ) T e ll y o u r g ro u p m a tes a b o u t s o m e o th e r ty p e s o f in te r io r fin ish e s b a s e d o n th e in fo rm a tio n to b e c o lle c te d . 24. L is te n to th e T e x t “ P la s te r S la b s ” . a ) W h ich o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts a re tr u e a n d w h ich a re fa lse ? 1. N o w p la s te r slab s a re u s e d in t h e a re a s i n w h ic h w o rk s h o u ld b e f in is h e d q u ic k ly . 2 . P la s te r sla b s a re fin is h e d w i t h a c o a t f o r c e ilin g s . 3. P la s te r s la b s a re n a ile d t o f i r e p r o o f f lo o rs . 4. S la b s a re g r o o v e d f o r p a r titio n s . 5. I r o n ro d s a re in s ta lle d in s la b s t o r e d u c e t h e w o rk s tre n g th . 6. A k e y e d s u rfa c e o f sla b s r e q u ire s fin is h in g . 7. A f in is h e d s u rfa c e m a y b e p a i n t e d b e fo re m a k in g th e jo in ts . 8. P a r titio n s c a n also b e f o r m e d w ith m e ta l jo in ts . b ) C h e c k y o u r a n sw ers w ith y o u r g ro u p m a tes and T a p e sc r ip t 1 2 B o f th e T e x t. L o o k up th e w o rd s y o u do n o t know in th e d ictio n a ry . c) R e te ll th e T e x t a b o u t p la s te r s la b s. SUPPLEMENTARY READING TEXT 1 C IV IL ENGINEERING'S IMAGE — A FIVE-YEAR UPDATE by Les Ham ill, Liz Hodokinson F iv e y e a r s ag o th is j o u r n a l r e p o r te d t h a t th e c iv il e n g in e e r in g p r o f e s s io n w a s r e la tiv e ly in v isib le to y o u n g p e o p le t h a t u n iv e rs itie s w e re s tru g g lin g t o fill p la c e s a n d t h a t m a n y p r a c titio n e r s w e re d is s a tis fie d . S in c e th e n t h e r e h a s b e e n a w e lc o m e i m p r o v e m e n t. T h e s a m e a u th o rs n o w fin d th a t civil e n g in e e rin g is fe a tu re d reg u larly o n te le v is io n , a p p lic a tio n s t o u n iv e r s itie s a re u p a n d p r a c tis in g c iv il e n g in e e r s s e e m h a p p ie r . T h is c o in c id e s w ith c iv il e n g in e e r s e n jo y in g a r e la tiv e ly h ig h w o r k lo a d a n d b e in g o f f e r e d im p r o v e d s a la r ie s a n d m o r e fle x ib le , f a m ily f r ie n d ly w o r k in g p a t t e r n s . U n c h a n g e d , h o w e v e r, is th e v e ry lo w p r o p o r tio n o f w o m e n e n te rin g th e p ro fe s s io n . I n M a y 2 0 0 3 t h e a u t h o r s p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r in “ C iv il E n g in e e r in g ” d e s c r ib in g th e “ in v is ib ility ” o f t h e c iv il e n g in e e r in g p r o f e s s io n , its r e la tiv e ly p o o r im a g e in s c h o o ls a n d h o w th is m ig h t b e im p r o v e d . T h is p a p e r re v ie w s th e c h a n g e s t h a t h a v e ta k e n p la c e d u r in g th e last five y ears. In 20 0 3 a n u m b e r o f fa c to rs w e re a d v e rse ly a f f e c tin g c iv il e n g in e e r in g 's im a g e . T h e s e a r e s u m m a r is e d b rie f ly b e lo w . — A p p lic a tio n s to s tu d y c iv il e n g in e e r in g a t u n iv e rsity h a d fa lle n b y a r o u n d 50 % b e tw e e n 1995 a n d 2 0 0 1 , re s u ltin g in t h e c lo s u r e o f so m e c o u rse s. - I n 2 0 0 0 , 6 1 % o f a c c e p te d h o m e a p p lic a n ts to e n g in e e r in g a n d t e c h n o lo g y d e g r e e c o u r s e s h e ld A /A S - le v e ls a n d 15% o f a B u s in e s s a n d T e c h n o lo g y E d u c a tio n C o u n c i l ( B T E C ) n a tio n a l SUPPLEMENTARY READING d ip lo m a 277 o r g e n e r a l n a tio n a l v o c a tio n a l q u a lif ic a tio n ( G N V Q ) . U s u a lly А -le v e l e n tr a n ts t o c iv il e n g in e e rin g m u s t h a v e m a th e m a tic s b u t, in 2 0 0 1 , a 2 9 % fa ilu re ra te in th e “ n e w ” A S -le v e l m a th s ( in t r o d u c e d a s p a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 0 c u r r i c u l u m re f o r m s ) s ig n ific a n tly r e d u c e d t h e n u m b e r o f c a n d id a te s f o r t h e fu ll А -le v e l. C o m p a r e d t o its B T E C n a tio n a l d i p l o m a p r e d e c e s s o r, t h e a d v a n c e d g e n e r a l n a t io n a l v o c a tio n a l q u a lific a tio n ( A G N V Q ) c o n t a i n e d in s u ffic ie n t m a th e m a tic s . - M a n y y o u n g p e o p le a sso c ia te d e n g in e e rin g w ith c a r m e c h a n ic s a n d d i r t y , m a n u a l , l o w - s t a t u s w o r k . C iv il e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n w e re a ls o p e r c e iv e d b y m a n y a s a d irty , m a n u a l jo b t h a t c o u ld p o te n tia lly b e “ b o r in g ” . - S u rv e y s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a r o u n d 7 0 % o f s i x th - f o r m s tu d e n ts c la im e d to “ k n o w n o th in g ” a b o u t c iv il e n g in e e rin g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d 6 2 % w o u ld n o t c o n s i d e r it a s a c a re e r. - T h e im a g e o f a m a l e - d o m i n a t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y w a s u n a ttr a c tiv e t o m a n y g irls a n d s o m e b o y s. - T h e s ta r tin g s a la ry o f g r a d u a te c iv il e n g in e e r s w a s r e la tiv e ly lo w , w h ic h d is c o u ra g e d p e o p le f ro m jo i n i n g t h e p ro fe s s io n . - 8 2 % o f p r a c tis in g c iv il e n g in e e rs t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y w e re u n d e rv a lu e d b y t h e i r e m p lo y e r a n d 6 4 % h a d c o n s id e re d le a v in g th e in d u s try in th e la st y e a r. T h e a u t h o r s m a d e a n u m b e r o f s u g g e s tio n s fo r im p r o v in g t h e im a g e o f c iv il e n g in e e rin g . T h e s e in c l u d e d in c r e a s in g th e s ta r tin g sala rie s o f g ra d u a te s , e n g a g in g in a p u b lic re la tio n s c a m p a ig n in v o lv ­ in g p o s itiv e n e w s re le a s e s a n d t e l e v is io n p r o g r a m m e s , a n d a s u s ta in e d c o m m i t m e n t t o p o s itiv e ly p r o m o t i n g t h e p ro fe s s io n in s c h o o ls t h r o u g h th e u s e o f e x c itin g h a n d s - o n a c tiv itie s a n d w o rk e x p e rie n c e . W h e n c o n s id e r in g t h e c h a n g e s o f t h e la s t fiv e y e a rs , it is u s e fu l t o c o n s id e r h o w t h e y fit in to a lo n g e r t im e f ra m e . T h e b u s in e s s w rite r, C h a r le s H a n d y , c l a im e d t h a t m a n y th in g s a re c y c lic a l a n d c a n b e r e p r e s e n te d b y th e s ig m o id c u rv e — lik e a s in e c u rv e o r h o r iz o n ta l S . T h e c u rv e re p r e s e n ts re la tiv e s u c c e s s w ith tim e , a n d m a y b e u s e d t o c h a r t a n y th in g f r o m th e rise a n d fa ll o f e m p ire s to a p r o d u c t ’s life c y c le . B o th c iv il e n g in e e r in g 's w o rk lo a d a n d u n iv e rs itie s ’ r e c r u itm e n t a re c y c lic a l. 278I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециаленчетей Universities ’ recruitment increases. O n e g o o d n u m e n c a l in d ic a to r o f th e “ h e a lth ” o f civil e n g in e e rin g is h o w m a n y s c h o o l s t u d e n ts w sh to e n t e r th e p r o f e s s io n . T h e n u m b e r o f h o m e civil e n g in e e r in g a p p lic a n ts t o th e U n iv e r s itie s a n d C o lle g e s A d m is s io n s S e rv ic e ( U C A S ) r e a c h e d th e b o t t o m o f th e c u rre n t s e c tio n o f th e sig m o id c u rv e i n 200 2 , a n d t h e n e x p e rie n c e d a m o d e s t in c r e a s e . T h is b e n e f its b o t h t h e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s tr y , w h ic h h a s b e e n stru g g lin g to re c r u it e n o u g h g ra d u a te civil e n g in e e rs, a n d u n iv e rsitie s’ civil e n g in e e n n g d e p a r tm e n ts , w h ic h n e e d su ffic ie n t s tu d e n ts t o r e m a in e c o n o m ic a lly v iab le. T h e U n iv e r s ity o f P ly m o u th , w h e r e b o t h a u th o r s w o r k , ru n s s e p a r a te d e g r e e c o u r s e s t h a t le a d to c h a r te r e d a n d in c o r p o r a te d e n g in e e r s ta tu s . D e s p ite m o r e U K s tu d e n ts n o w g o in g t o u n iv e rsity th a n e v e r b e f o r e , th e n u m b e r o f h o m e s tu d e n ts a d m i t t e d t o th e c h a r te r e d c o u rs e in th e 2 0 0 0 s is lo w e r th a n in t h e 1980s. I n b e tw e e n t h e r e h a v e b e e n h ig h s (9 6 s tu d e n ts ) a n d lo w s ( 2 5 ). M a n y fa c to r s in f lu e n c e th e s e n u m b e r s , in c lu d in g t h e im a g e a n d p o p u la r ity o f civ il e n g in e e n n g c o m p a r e d to its c o m p e tito r p r o fe s s io n s . I n 1997 a n y th in g a s s o c ia te d w ith c o m p u te r s a n d e le c tr o n ic e n g i n e e n n g w a s s e e n a s p o s itiv e a n d f u tu n s tic . T h e h ig h p o i n t o f c o m p u tin g ’s sig m o id c u rv e w a s 2 0 0 1 , w h e n th e r e w e re 2 4 0 5 4 h o m e a p p lic a n ts t o U C A S f o r c o m p u t e r s c ie n c e ; in 2 0 0 6 t h e r e w e re 10 6 8 4 , a fa ll o f 5 6 % . A p p lic a tio n s f o r e l e c t r o n i c a n d e l e c tr ic a l e n g in e e r in g h a v e a lso f a lle n sh a r p ly in th e la st fe w ye a rs. T h e i r lo ss m a y h a v e c o n t n b u t e d to c iv il e n g in e e r in g ’s r e c o v e ry . A n o t h e r in te r e s tin g lo n g - te r m f lu c tu a tio n is t h e p e r c e n ta g e o f s tu d e n ts a d m itte d t o th e c o u rs e a t P ly m o u th w ith A -Ie v e ls. A t a r o u n d 6 0 % it is e ffe c tiv e ly th e s a m e in th e m id - 2 0 0 0 s a s i n th e e a r ly 1980s. A g a in , th e r e h a v e b e e n h ig h s (8 2 % ) a n d lo w s (2 5 % ). A lm o s t a ll o f t h e s e s t u d e n ts h a v e a p a s s in А - le v e l m a th s , a s u b je c t w h ic h its e lf h a s e x p e r i e n c e d f l u c t u a t i n g p o p u l a r i t y . F o llo w in g t h e 2 0 0 0 c u r r ic u lu m re f o r m s , th e r e w a s a 2 9 % f a ilu r e in A S - le v e l m a th s in 2 0 0 1 , w h ic h r e s u lte d i n a 19% r e d u c tio n in c a n d id a te s f o r A - le v c l m a th s a n d f u r th e r m a th s in 2 0 0 2 . T h e r e s u ltin g a la r m t r ig g e r e d a d ju s tm e n ts t o th e m a th s A -le v e l, w h ic h f r o m 2 0 0 3 o n w a r d s h a s b e e n m o n ito r e d in d e p e n d e n tly o f f u r th e r m a th s . S in c e 2 0 0 3 , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f c a n d id a te s a c h ie v in g th e h ig h e s t g r a d e , A , h a s in c r e a s e d s te a d ily t o 4 4 % i n 2 0 0 7 , w ith SUPPLEMENTARY READING 279 a f u r t h e r 21 % o b ta in in g g ra d e B . T h is is re la tiv e ly h ig h c o m p a r e d t o m a n y o t h e r s u b je c ts. T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e d e b a te as to w h e th e r o r n o t th is re p re s e n ts a re a l i m p r o v e m e n t in s ta n d a rd . S o m e su g g est t h a t s c h o o ls a re b e in g v e ry s e le c tiv e a b o u t w h o th e y a llo w t o ta k e А - le v e l m a th s , o th e r s t h a t g ra d e in fla tio n h a s o c c u rre d . It is b e n e fic ia l t o c iv il e n g in e e rin g th a t t h e p o ssib ility o f a c h ie v in g h ig h g ra d e s n o w a p p e a rs to b e e n c o u ra g in g s tu d e n ts to ta k e A -le v e lm a th s a n d f u r th e r m a th s . I n d e e d , 2 0 0 7 saw t h e h ig h e s t n u m b e r o f c a n d i d a t e s s i n c e 2 0 0 0 . V o c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s h a v e a ls o e x p e rie n c e d s o m e d iffic u ltie s. I n th e m id - 1980s th e B T E C n a tio n a l d i p l o m a w a s re v is e d ; in itia lly it c o n t a i n e d in s u ffic ie n t m a th s , b u t th is w a s re c tifie d s o t h a t i n 1993 it p ro v id e d th e m a jo rity o f e n tr a n ts to P ly m o u th ’s co u rse . T h e B T E C n a tio n a l d i p l o m a w a s s u p e rs e d e d b y th e m a t h e m a tic a lly w e a k A G N V Q a n d th e s e s tu d e n t s s t a r te d a rriv in g a t P ly m o u th in 199 5 . T h e ill- c o n c e iv e d A G N V Q w a s s o o n r e p la c e d a n d , b y 2 0 0 2 , P ly m o u t h r e c e iv e d s t u d e n ts w ith t h e n e w B T E C n a t i o n a l d i p l o m a . T h is c a n c o n t a i n t w o m a t h s u n i t s , b u t f r e q u e n tly o n ly o n e is ta k e n ( o u t o f a t o ta l o f 18) s o m a th e m a tic s m a y r e p re s e n t o n ly a r o u n d 6 % o f t h e c o u rs e . T h is is m u c h less t h a n t h e m a x i m u m o f 3 3 % o b t a i n e d f r o m t h r e e А -le v e ls . T h u s n e w n a tio n a l d ip lo m a s tu d e n ts a re o f te n re la tiv e ly w e a k in m a th e m a tic a l sk ills. I n t h e 2 0 0 0 s, B T E C n a t i o n a l d i p l o m a s t u d e n ts r e p r e s e n t a m i n o r ity o f P l y m o u t h ’s e n try . C iv il e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t i o n s u f f e r s f r o m t w o c o n t i n u i n g p ro b le m s : B rita in ’s a v e rs io n to m a th s a n d th e lo w e r a c a d e m ic s ta tu s a ffo rd e d to c o n s tru c tio n . I n 2 0 0 7 , p la n s are w ell a d v a n c e d in s c h o o ls fo r t h e n e w “ w o r k - r e l a t e d ” 14—19 d i p l o m a s . T h e s e a r e th e e q u iv a le n t o f tw o to th re e А -lev els i n le n g th o f s tu d y a n d w ill p ro v id e a n o t h e r r o u te in to h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . A v a ila b le f r o m S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 8 , s u b je c ts i n c lu d e e n g in e e r in g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d th e b u ilt e n v iro n m e n t. T h e U K E n g in e e rin g P ro fe s s o rs ’ C o u n c il c o m p la in e d t h a t th e n e w e n g in e e rin g d i p l o m a c o n ta in e d o n ly a r o u n d o n e -s ix th o f A -le v e l m a th s , w h ic h is in s u ffic ie n t. A t th e e le v e n th y e a r, s o m e a d d itio n a l m a th e m a tic s h a s b e e n a d d e d . T h e c o n s tru c tio n d ip lo m a c o n t a i n s m u c h less m a th e m a tic s , a n d it is d o u b tf u l t h a t , b y itse lf, it w ill e n a b le s tu d e n ts to b e su c c e s s fu l o n u n iv e rs ity c h a r te r e d - le v e l e n g in e e rin g d e g re e co u rse s. 280 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Civil engineering’s improving image. T h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C iv il E n g in e e r s is t o b e c o m m e n d e d f o r its c o n tr ib u tio n s t o th e m e d ia t h r o u g h r e p o r ts s u c h as “ T h e S ta te o f th e N a t i o n ” a n d f o r its effo rts t o p r o m o te c iv il e n g in e e rin g t h r o u g h p u b l i c a t i o n s l ik e “ T h e L i t t l e B o o k o f C i v i l i s a t i o n ” . C iv il e n g in e e r in g h a s a lso b e e n t h e s u b je c t o f a v a r ie ty o f e n te r ta in in g te le v is io n p r o g r a m m e s , a r e c e n t e x a m p le b e in g N a tio n a l G e o g r a p h i c ’s “ M e g a s tr u c tu r e s ” s e rie s, w h i c h f e a tu r e d th e d e sig n a n d c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e B u ij A l-A ra b h o te l a n d T h e W o r ld is la n d s in D u b a i. S u c h p r o g r a m m e s h e lp o v e r c o m e th e in v is ib ility o f th e p r o f e s s io n a n d a r e t o b e w e lc o m e d . A lth o u g h civ il e n g in e e r in g ’s p o p u la r ity , a s g a u g e d b y u n iv e rs ity a p p lic a tio n s , h a s in c r e a s e d r e c e n tly , e n g in e e r in g a s a w h o le still h a s im a g e p r o b le m s . D e s p ite a n o v e r a ll 18% in c r e a s e in h o m e a p p lic a n ts t o U C A S b e tw e e n 199 4 a n d 2 0 0 6 , e n g in e e r in g ’s s h a r e o f th e to ta l fell fro m a r o u n d 4 .8 % in 1994 to 3 .2 % in 2 0 0 3 a n d 2 .9 % in 2 0 0 6 . H o w e v e r , th e U K is n o t a lo n e : A u s tr a lia a n d G e r m a n y a r e a lso e x p e r ie n c in g a s h o r ta g e o f g ra d u a te e n g in e e r s . I n G e r m a n y , w h e re e n g in e e r in g is tr a d itio n a lly a r e s p e c te d p r o f e s s io n , th e d e c lin in g s ta tu s o f e n g in e e r in g is b e in g p a r tia lly a tt r i b u t e d t o th e rise o f th e e n v i r o n m e n ta l m o v e m e n t in t h e 1 9 7 0 s, w h ic h c a u s e d p e o p le to q u e s tio n t h e im p a c t o f te c h n o lo g y o n s o c ie ty a n d th e e n v ir o n m e n t. I n 2 0 0 3 t h e a u th o r s d e s c r ib e d a s im ila r r e a c t i o n in th e U K . C iv il e n g in e e r in g h a d a f a v o u r a b le im a g e in th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d e a r ly 1 9 9 0 s, w h e n p r e s tig io u s p r o je c ts lik e th e T h a m e s B a r r ie r a n d C h a n n e l T u n n e l w e re h e a d lin e n e w s. T h is im a g e w a s ta r n is h e d b y e n v ir o n m e n ta l p r o te s ts a t T w y fo rd D o w n , N e w b u r y a n d e lse w h e re . A s c o n c e r n s a b o u t c lim a te c h a n g e in c r e a s e , w ill th e r e b e a n e w c y c le o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l p r o te s ts ? I n M a r c h 2 0 0 8 n a tio n a l te le v is io n n e w s g a v e e x te n siv e c o v e ra g e o f p r o te s to r s o p p o s e d to a ir tra v e l a n d th e e x te n s io n o f H e a th r o w a irp o rt. O f all o f th e e n g in e e rin g d is c ip lin e s , civ il e n g in e e rin g is arg u a b ly b e s t p l a c e d t o o v e r tu r n t h e e n v ir o n m e n ta lly u n f r ie n d ly , b o r in g im a g e . T h e r e a r e m a n y e x c itin g a n d im p o r ta n t p r o je c ts c u r r e n tly in th e n e w s, in c lu d in g im p r o v e m e n ts t o ra ilw a y s a n d n e w s p o r ts s ta d ia s u c h a s fa c ilitie s f o r th e L o n d o n 20 1 2 O ly m p ic s . T h e fa te o f flo o d e d SUPPLEMENTARY READING 281 N e w O rle a n s u n d e rlin e d w h a t m ig h t h a p p e n t o L o n d o n if th e T h a m e s B a rrie r a n d its a s s o c ia te d f lo o d d e fe n c e s a re n o t u p g r a d e d in th e n e x t 2 0 y e a rs. M a jo r p r o p o s e d u r b a n d e v e lo p m e n ts s u c h a s th e T h a m e s G a te w a y a re p o s s ib le o n ly w ith a d e q u a te f lo o d d e fe n c e s . T h e w id e s p re a d flo o d in g e x p e rie n c e d a c ro ss c e n tr a l E n g la n d d u rin g t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 0 7 n o t o n ly h ig h lig h te d th e i m p o r t a n c e o f flo o d d e fe n c e s , b u t a ls o r e m i n d e d e v e ry o n e t h a t a w a t e r s u p p ly a n d a d e q u a te sew e ra g e sh o u ld n o t b e ta k e n fo r g ra n te d . I f g lo b a l w a rm in g m a k e s B r ita in ’s c lim a te m o r e e x tre m e , th e p r o b le m o f c o p in g w ith flo o d s a n d d ro u g h ts m a y b e c o m e m o re c h a lle n g in g . O f c o u rs e , im a g e is a ls o in f lu e n c e d b y e a rn in g s p o te n tia l. H e re t h e r e is m ix e d n e w s fo r c iv il e n g in e e rin g . C iv il e n g in e e rs a re still re la tiv e ly p o o r ly p a i d c o m p a r e d t o p r o f e s s io n a l e n g in e e r in g a s a w h o le . A d d itio n a lly , in 2 0 0 3 s u rv e y s a p p e a r e d to in d ic a te t h a t th e m a jo rity o f civil e n g in e e rs w e re u n h a p p y w ith th e ir c h o s e n p ro fe s s io n a n d t h a t 6 4 % w o u ld c o n s i d e r le a v in g . I n c o n tr a s t, in 2 0 0 7 th e y w e re a p p a r e n d y th e h a p p ie s t in t h e i r fie ld , w ith 5 8 % b e in g “ alw a y s h a p p y ” a n d o n ly 2 1 % s a y in g th e y w o u ld c o n s id e r le a v in g . W o rk in g o n a w id e v a rie ty o f p r o j e c t s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s n e w - f o u n d h a p p in e s s , w h ic h c o i n c id e s w ith th e in d u s tr y e n jo y in g a r e la tiv e ly h ig h w o rk lo a d w h ile a s c a r c ity o f c iv il e n g in e e r in g g r a d u a te s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d to h ig h e r s a la rie s . H o w e v e r, th e i n d u s tr y is c y c lic a l. T h e n e x t d o w n tu rn m a y r e d u c e s a la rie s a n d b e n e fits a g a in , in c re a s e p r o b le m s w ith th e r e t e n t i o n o f q u a lifie d e n g in e e r s , a n d m a k e th e p ro fe s s io n less a ttra c tiv e t o s c h o o l s tu d e n ts . T h e r e c o n tin u e s to b e m u c h g o o d w o rk b e in g d o n e in s c h o o ls to p r o m o te e n g in e e r in g c a re e rs , a n d m a n y o f th e s e in v o lv e h a n d s - o n a c t i v i t i e s d e s ig n e d t o b e in s p i r a t i o n a l . T h e r e is s o m e lo o s e c o o r d in a tio n o f a c tiv itie s b u t, a s in 2 0 0 3 , th e r e c a n b e a c o n fu s in g ly la rg e n u m b e r o f c o m p e tin g e v e n ts a v a ila b le t o te a c h e r s . T o s o m e e x te n t th is is in e v ita b le , a s d iffe re n t p ro fe s s io n s , c a re e rs , a n d t ra d e s c o m p e te to s e c u re th e b e s t s u p p ly o f in d iv id u a ls . F o r y o u n g p e o p le in s c h o o ls it c a n b e r a t h e r b e w ild e rin g , e s p e c ia lly s in c e c a r e e r s g u id a n c e c o n tin u e s to b e m in im a l, w h ic h is p e r h a p s o n e re a s o n w h y ste re o ty p e s a re so h a r d t o c h a n g e a n d m a n y p u p ils c o n tin u e to o p t fo r w h a t th e y k n o w o r fe e l is a s a fe o r t r a d itio n a l c h o ic e . 282 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Women т civil engineering. J u s t a s n u r s in g is f r e q u e n tly c r itic is e d f o r b e in g p r e d o m in a n d y fe m a le , so e n g in e e r in g is c n tic is e d f o r b e in g p r e d o m in a n tly m a le . W o m e n n o w re p re se n t a r o u n d 5 6% o f all h o m e u n iv e rsity a p p lic a n ts, b u t civ il e n g in e e r in g d o e s n o t re fle c t th is . I n 1 994, 11% o f th e h o m e a p p lic a n ts t o c iv il e n g in e e r in g w e r e w o m e n , 15% in 2 0 0 0 a n d 13% in 2 0 0 6 . H e r e it is m o r e o f a h o r iz o n ta l lin e t h a n a sig m o id c u rv e . O n e o b v io u s b a r r ie r to w o m e n e n te rin g e n g in e e rin g is t h e g e n d e r b ia s in А -level subjects: in 200 7 w o m e n fo rm e d 6 9 % o f th e c a n d id a te s in E n g lis h b u t o n ly 2 2 % in p h y s ic s a n d 4 0 % in m a th s , th i s la st sh o w in g a s m a ll b u t s te a d y in c r e a s e r e c e n tly . O th e r r e a s o n s w h y w o m e n a re n o t a ttr a c te d to e n g in e e r in g , a n d to civ il e n g in e e r in g in p a r tic u la r , h a v e b e e n d is c u s s e d e lse w h e re . A r e c e n t su rv e y b y A tk in s su g g e ste d t h a t fe a rs a b o u t u n e q u a l p a y a n d c a r e e r o p p o r tu n itie s a re still p re v a le n t in c o n s tr u c tio n a n d d e te r w o m e n fr o m e n te rin g . I n 2 0 0 3 , a r o u n d 3 8 % o f t h e s tu d e n ts e n te r in g a r c h ite c tu r a l s tu d ie s , b u t o n ly 13% o f th e a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r o f e s s io n a s a w h o le , w e re w o m e n . T h is d i s c r e p a n c y w a s n o t a t t r i b u t e d t o a p o o r c a r e e r c h o ic e o r a la c k o f a c a d e m ic o r p r a c tic a l a b ility , b u t t o th e f a ilu re o f th e p r o f e s s io n t o r e ta in w o m e n . S o m e o f th e re a s o n s w o m e n le a v e c o u ld a lso a ffe c t m e n . T h e s e in c lu d e lo w p a y , lo n g a n d in fle x ib le o r n o n - f a m ily - f n e n d ly w o rk in g h o u r s , m a c h o c u ltu r e , s id e lin in g , u n e q u a l p a y , s e x is m a n d l a c k o f r e t u r n e r tr a i n i n g a f te r m a t e r n i t y le a v e . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o c o u n t e r th is in c lu d e e m b e d d in g o f g e n d e r e q u a lity in u n iv e r s itie s ’ c u r r ic u la , in c lu s io n o f e q u a l- o p p o r tu n itie s p r a c tic e in th e p ro f e s s io n a l b o d ie s ’ c o d e s o f p r a c tic e , m o r e a ffo rd a b le a n d fle x ib le c o n tin u in g p r o f e s s io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t, m e n to r in g a n d a d v is o r y o r h e lp lin e s u p p o r t. M a n y civ il e n g in e e r in g c o m p a n ie s h a v e a d o p te d m o r e fle x ib le , f a m ily - f r ie n d ly w o r k in g p a t t e r n s a n d b e n e f its t h a t a re n o d o u b t a p p re c ia te d b y a ll e m p lo y e e s. N e v e rth e le ss, th e in d u stry is still m a le d o m in a te d a n d re la tiv e ly u n a ttr a c tiv e to w o m e n . It is, o f c o u r s e , p e r f e c tly re a s o n a b le if w o m e n d e c id e t h a t t h e y d o n o t w a n t t o b e e n g in e e rs a fte r h a v in g h a d a c c e ss to g o o d c a re e rs a d v ic e , a n d p e r h a p s SUPPLEMENTARY READING 283 h a v in g t a k e n p a r t in o n e o f th e m a n y e x p e rie n tia l a c tiv itie s o n o ffe r fro m u n iv e rsitie s a n d in d u stry . It is d isa p p o in tin g if th e y a re d e te rre d fro m e n t e r i n g th e p r o f e s s io n t h r o u g h ig n o r a n c e o f w h a t it is re a lly like o r u n in te n tio n a l d is c rim in a tio n o n c e th e y g e t th e r e H o w e v e r, e v e ry o n e a g re e s t h a t e n g in e e r in g n e e d s to l e c r u i t t h e b e s t y o u n g m in d s — a n d h a lf o f th e s e b e lo n g to w o m e n Conclusion. C iv il e n g in e e r in g is in b e tte r h e a lth n o w t h a n i n M a y 2 0 0 3 . T h e p ro fe s s io n is m o r e v isib le t h a n it w a s, th e d e c lin e m u n iv e rs ity a p p lic a n ts h a s re v e rs e d , g ra d u a te s h o rta g e s c o m b in e d w ith a h ig h w o rk lo a d m e a n s e m p lo y m e n t a n d sta rtin g s alaries are relativ ely g o o d , a n d m o s t e n g in e e rs a re fa iriy h a p p y in t h e i r w o rk . H o w e v e r , c iv il e n g in e e rin g is a n o to r io u s ly “ b o o m a n d b u s t ” in d u s try , a n d o n e o f n a r r o w p r o f it m a rg in s . T h e d a n g e r is t h a t th e n ex t d o w n tu rn in w o rk lo a d w ill re d u c e salaries a g a in a n d re -e s ta b lis h a m a c h o lo n g - h o u r s c u ltu re a t th e e x p e n s e o f m a n y o f th e fle x ib le , f a m ily -frie n d ly w o rk in g p ra c tic e s t h a t h av e b e e n a d o p te d . T h is c a n o n ly re s u lt in th e p r o f e s s io n r e g a in in g its “ u n h a p p y ” ta g w ith a re la tiv e ly lo w s ta tu s , a p o o r im a g e a n d r e c r u i t m e n t a n d r e t e n t i o n p ro b le m s . T h e c lim a tic e x tre m e s o f th e s u m m e r o f 2 0 0 7 , w h e th e r a b l i p o f n a t u r e o r a p r e c u r s o r o f g lo b a l w a r m in g , h a v e b r o u g h t to th e p u b lic ’s a tte n tio n th e p ro b le m s o f flo o d p r o te c tio n , d ra in a g e , w a te r s u p p lie s , s a n i t a t i o n a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s te m s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n few b e tte r o p p o rtu n itie s fo r th e civil e n g in e e rin g p ro fe s s io n to p re s e n t its e lf a s t h e k e y p r o v i d e r o f t h e e s s e n tia l s e rv ic e s t h a t h a v e s o l o n g b e e n ta k e n f o r g r a n te d . C iv il e n g in e e r in g is n o t a b o u t t h e p a s t, it is a b o u t t h e fu tu r e , a n d c iv il e n g in e e r s c a n m a k e a d iffe re n c e . T h e t i m e to e n s u re th e f u tu re is w h e n th in g s a re g o in g w e ll a n d t h e h ig h p o i n t o f th e s ig m o id c u rv e h a s n o t y e t b e e n re a c h e d . B y th e t im e th e p e a k h a s p a s s e d it is to o la te . T h e p ro fe s s io n s h o u ld a im to m a i n t a i n in t o th e f u tu r e th e p ro g re s s t h a t h a s a lr e a d y b e e n m a d e , c o n t i n u e t o im p ro v e t h e a re a s t h a t a re s till u n s a tis f a c to r y a n d g iv e s o m e t h o u g h t to n e w in itiativ es th a t m ig h t b e in tro d u c e d t o e n h a n c e f u r t h e r b o t h t h e im a g e a n d t h e r e a lity o f c iv il e n g in e e rin g . (New Civil Engineer International, November, 2008) 284I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей ^ТЕХТ 2 ENGINEERING DESIGN IN THE TIME OF THOMAS TELFORD by B ill Addis T h o m a s T e l f o r d , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C iv il E n g i n e e r s ’ first p r e s id e n t, w a s b o m 2 5 0 y e a r s a g o th i s y e a r . H is c a r e e r s p a n n e d a h a lf - c e n tu r y th a t sa w s o m e o f t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b le c h a n g e s in th e w a y E u r o p e a n e n g in e e rs a p p r o a c h e d th e d e s ig n o f b u ild in g s , b rid g e s a n d m a c h in e s T h is p a p e r re v ie w s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e n g in e e r in g d e s ig n , s c ie n c e a n d e d u c a t i o n d u r in g T e lf o r d ’s e r a , r e v e a lin g t h a t B r ita in w a s t h e n fa r b e h in d F r a n c e , G e r m a n y a n d o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n tr ie s . T h r o u g h th e w o r k o f T e lf o r d a n d o t h e r s , B r i t a i n ’s e n g in e e r s e m b r a c e d t h e p r a c t i c a l e x p e r im e n ta l a p p r o a c h t h a t scien tists th r o u g h o u t E u ro p e h a d d e v e lo p e d i n th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry to g e n e r a te n e w e n g in e e r in g k n o w le d g e a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g . B y t h e e a r ly n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y B r i t a i n w a s e m e r g in g a s a l e a d in g e n g i n e e n n g n a tio n . T h e e ra s p a n n e d b y T h o m a s T e lfo rd ’s life ( 1 7 5 7 —18 54) is u su a lly c h a r a c te r is e d as b e in g t h e p e r io d w h e n w ro u g h t a n d c a s t ir o n b e g a n re p la c in g th e t r a d itio n a l m a te r ia ls o f s to n e , b r ic k s a n d t i m b e r f o r th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f b u ild in g s , b rid g e s a n d m a c h in e s . H o w e v e r , th e s e w e re n o t t h e o n ly c h a n g e s t o t h e w o r ld o f e n g in e e rin g . T h e s a m e h a lf c e n tu ry saw m a n y o th e r d e v e lo p m e n ts t h a t affe c te d h o w e n g i n e e r s u n d e r t o o k d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts w e re ta k in g p la c e all o v e r c o n tin e n ta l E u r o p e — fro m S c a n d in a v ia to R u ssia , I ta ly a n d S p a in — a n d n e w s o f th e m u su a lly tr a v e lle d fa s t, e i th e r th r o u g h o p e n v isits b y le a d in g e n g in e e r s , v ia n o n - t e c h m c a l tr a v e lle r s , o r b y m e a n s o f m ilita r y a n d in d u s tr ia l e sp io n a g e T e lf o r d w a s a g r e g a r io u s m a n — i n d e e d , p r o m o tin g c o n t a c t b e tw e e n e n g in e e r s w a s o n e o f h is re a s o n s f o r b e c o m in g p r e s id e n t o f t h e n e w ly f o r m e d I n s titu tio n o f C iv il E n g in e e r s in 1820 — a n d it is m o r e t h a n lik e ly t h a t h e w a s a w a re o f e v e r y th in g m e n tio n e d i n t h e f o llo w in g re v ie w o f th e w o r ld o f e n g in e e r in g d e s ig n d u r in g h is life tim e . SUPPLEMENTARY READING 285 Building with new materials. Concrete. T e lf o r d ’s life c o v e r s t h e h a l f - c e n t u r y w h e n t h e u s e o f c o n c r e te b e c a m e fir m ly e s ta b lis h e d in th e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s tr y . I t h a d b e e n w id e ly u s e d m F r a n c e in m a r in e e n g in e e r in g a n d f o r b r id g e f o u n ­ d a tio n s b y th e m i d - e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . J o h n S m e a to n ( 1 7 2 4 - 1 7 9 2 ) d is c o v e r e d h y d r a u lic c e m e n t o n a t r i p t o t h e N e th e r la n d s a n d e x p e r im e n te d t o a c h ie v e t h e b e s t m ix d e s ig n b e f o r e u s in g it f o r c o n c r e t e ( o r b e t o n a s i t w a s t h e n c a lle d ) in h is E d d y s to n e lig h th o u s e ( 1 7 5 6 - 1 7 5 9 ) a n d in th e f o u n d a tio n s o f H e x h a m B rid g e (1 7 7 7 ). B y t h e e a r ly n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , it w a s b e in g w id e ly u s e d m B r ita in in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e d o c k s a n d h a r b o u r s , f o r e x a m p le in L o n d o n ’s d o c k s , a s f o u n d a tio n s f o r th e d o c k s a n d b u ild in g s a n d f o r m a s s c o n c r e te w a lls. T e lf o r d u s e d a b e d o f c o n c r e te f o r t h e f o u n d a tio n s o f h is S t K a t h e r i n e ’s d o c k s ( 1 8 2 6 ). A lth o u g h th e c h e m is tr y o f c o n c r e te w a s e sta b lish e d in th e la te e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , m a in ly b y F r e n c h scie n tists s u c h a s V ic a t, th e m o d e m u n d e r s ta n d in g o f m ix - d e s ig n w a s n o t g a in e d u n t i l t h e e a r ly t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y th r o u g h t h e w o r k o f U S e n g in e e r in g s c ie n tis t D u f f A b ra m s . Wrought iron. W r o u g h t ir o n h a d b e e n i n w id e s p r e a d u s e i n E u r o p e s in c e th e la te m id d le a g e s , b o t h f o r m ilita r y u s e — a r m o u r , c a n n o n , o t h e r e n g in e s o f w a r a n d s h i p b u ild in g , a n d f o r c iv il u se — i n to o ls a n d f o r lo a d - b e a r in g a p p lic a tio n s w h e r e t im b e r w a s in s u ffic ie n tly stro n g , s tiff, o r d u r a b le . N o ta b le u s e s w e r e f o r t i e d m a s o n r y a r c h e s in m a n y la r g e c h u r c h e s , a p r a c t i c e d a tin g f r o m t h e s ix th c e n t u r y in th e M id d le E a s t, a n d th e ir o n c h a in s u s e d in t h e d o m e o f S t P e te r ’s i n R o m e ( 1 5 5 0 - 1 5 7 0 ) a n d b y C h r i s t o p h e r W r e n a t S t P a u l ’s c a t h e d r a l in L o n d o n ( 1 6 7 0 - 1 7 1 0 ) . M o s t la rg e t i m b e r ro o f s h a d i r o n s tr a p s t o c a r r y te n s io n fo r c e s a c r o s s j o i n t s a n d s u p p o r t lo n g t i m b e r tie - b e a m s . W r e n u s e d ir o n t ie s t o s u p p o r t a m e z z a n in e f lo o r a t H a m p t o n C o u r t n e a r L o n d o n , a n d t o h e lp s u p p o r t la rg e , f i r s t- f lo o r b o o k c a s e s a t T r in ity C o lle g e lib r a r y in C a m b r id g e . M a k in g b e s t u se o f J e a n T ijo u , h is F r e n c h i r o n m a s te r a t S t P a u l ’s, W r e n a ls o u s e d w r o u g h t i r o n in 1 6 9 2 - 1 6 9 3 t o m a k e c o l u m n s t o s u p p o r t th e b a lc o n y in h is r e f u r b is h m e n t o f th e c h a p e l o f S t S te p h e n a t t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s m W e s tm in s te r . 286 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Cast iron. T h e u s e o f c a s t ir o n in E u r o p e a ls o h a d its o r ig in s in m ilita r y a p p lic a tio n s — n o ta b ly t h e b a r r e ls o f c a n n o n in G e r m a n y f r o m th e m i d - f if te e n th c e n tu r y . T h e c o lu m n s u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e k itc h e n c h im n e y in a m o n a s te r y n e a r L is b o n in 1752 w e re a lm o s t c e r ta in ly a n e x a m p le o f m a r k e t d iv e r s if ic a tio n b y t h e lo c a l c a n n o n f o u n d r y . S m e a to n w a s o n e o f th e first e n g in e e rs in t h e 1750s t o u se c a s t ir o n c o n s is te n tly f o r t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f m ills t h a t w e re m o s t s u b je c t t o w e a r , a n d t h e first a l l - c a s t - i r o n m a c h in e r y f o r a f lo u r m ill w a s b u ilt in 1784. T h e f irst c a s t- ir o n I - s e c tio n ra ils w e re m a d e b y J e sso p in th e 1780s. T h e i r o n b r id g e , c o m p le te d in 177 9 in S h r o p s h ir e n e a r t h e m o d e m to w n o f T e lf o r d , w a s b u ilt a s a m a s s iv e a d v e r tis e m e n t f o r n e w u s e s o f c a s t ir o n , a n d a n u m b e r o f n e a r b y c h u r c h e s f e a tu r e d th e ea rlie st use o f c a s t iro n in a n a rc h ite c tu ra l c o n te x t, w h e re c o lu m n s w e r e u s e d t o s u p p o r t b a lc o n ie s . C a s t - i r o n c o lu m n s in in d u s tr ia l b u ild in g s w e re u s e d b y W illia m S tr u tt (1 7 5 6 —18 3 0 ) i n a n u m b e r o f b u ild in g s in t h e D e r w e n t V a lle y , b e g in n in g w ith th e c o t t o n m ill in D e r b y in 1792 — 1793. T h e f irs t c a s t - i r o n f lo o r b e a m s w e re u se d b y T h o m a s B age in th e flax m ill a t S h r e w s b u ry in 1 7 9 6 - 1 7 9 7 . Steel. T h e m a n u f a c tu r e o f b o th w r o u g h t a n d c a s t i r o n im p r o v e d d u rin g th is p e r io d , b o th as a re s u lt o f th e d ir e c t p r a c tic a l e x p e r im e n ta tio n in f o u n d r ie s a n d a ls o u s in g t h e r e s u lts o b t a in e d b y a n u m b e r o f s c ie n tis ts , n o ta b ly b y t h e F r e n c h p h y s ic is t R e a u m u r , w h o s e b o o k “ T h e a r t o f c o n v e r tin g ir o n in to s te e l a n d m a k in g c a s t ir o n s o f te r ” ( m o r e m a l l e a b l e ) , w a s p u b l i s h e d in 1 7 2 2 , a n d t h e S w e d is h m e ta llu r g is t T . 0 . B e r g m a n n , w h o e s ta b lis h e d th e i m p o r ta n t e ffe c t o f c a r b o n c o n t e n t o n t h e p r o p e r tie s o f a llo y s o f ir o n in th e 1760s. R iv e te d , w r o u g h t- ir o n b o ile r s f o r s te a m e n g in e s w e r e b e in g m a d e f ro m t h e 1750s a n d flat s e c tio n s a n d ro d s o f w r o u g h t iro n w e re b e in g r o lle d ( r a t h e r t h a n h a n d - f o r g e d ) in S w e d e n in t h e 1 7 4 0 s a n d in E n g la n d f r o m th e e a rly 1780s. Making buildings more fireproof. T h e in c r e a s e in u se o f w r o u g h t a n d c a s t i r o n in b u ild in g s w a s la rg e ly a c o n s e q u e n c e o f m a n y fires in th e a tr e s a n d in m u lti- s to r e y f a c to r ie s a n d w a r e h o u s e s t h a t h a d o f te n r e s u lte d i n te r r ib le lo ss o f SUPPLEMENTARY READING 287 life a s w e ll a s t h e lo ss o f b u ild in g s a n d th e e x p e n s iv e m a n u fa c tu rin g o r t h e a t n c a l sta g e m a c h in e r y in s id e T h e F r e n c h a r c h i t e c t J a c q u e s - G e r m a i n S o u fflo t w a s p ro b a b ly t h e fir s t t o t a k e w h a t w o u ld n o w b e c a lle d a fir e - e n g in e e r in g a p p r o a c h t o th e d e s ig n o f b u ild in g s f o r h is t h e a t r e in L y o n s , c o m p le te d in 1754. H e n o t o n ly so u g h t to a v o id th e u se o f fla m m a b le m a te r ia ls , h e a ls o in s ta lle d w a te r ta n k s a n d h o s e p ip e s a b o v e th e s ta g e , h e c r e a t e d s t r i c t c o m p a r t m e n t a l i s a t i o n b e tw e e n th e s ta g e , d re ssin g ro o m s a n d a u d ito riu m , a n d th e sta irw a y s w e re m a d e e n tire ly o f s to n e a n d e n c lo s e d b y s tu rd y f ire d o o rs . T o w a r d s th e e n d o f h is life (1 7 8 1 ) h e w a s r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e firs t a l l - i r o n , f ir e p r o o f r o o f t ru s s , i n t h e L o u v re p a la c e . T h is id e a w a s u s e d a fe w y e a rs la te r b y t h e a r c h i t e c t V ic to r L o u is in h is T h e a t r e F r a n c a is in P a ris , w h ic h h a d a n i r o n r o o f t ru s s s p a n n in g 2 2 m a s w e ll a s a c e ilin g t o t h e a u d i t o r i u m m a d e u s in g f ir e p r o o f p o te r ie s — h o llo w c la y p o t s a n d ir o n . N e w s o f th is f i r e p r o o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s o o n r e a c h e d W illia m S tr u lt in D e rb y s h ire , w h o u s e d h o llo w c la y p o ts i n s o m e o f t h e j a c k a rc h e s in h is fir e p r o o f m ills a n d w a re h o u s e s fro m 1792. D ru ry L a n e th e a tr e in L o n d o n w a s th e first t o b e f it t e d w i t h a n ir o n s a fe ty c u r t a i n in 1794. Material strength and stiffness. O n e c h a r a c te r is tic o f e n g in e e rs is t h a t th e y u se c a lc u la tio n s to ra ise t h e i r c o n f id e n c e t h a t a p r o p o s e d d e s ig n w ill w o rk . F o r lo a d b e a r in g a p p lic a tio n s , th e tw o k e y q u a n titie s a re t h e s t r e n g t h a n d stiffn e ss o f m a te ria ls. I n T e lfo rd ’s tim e , th e s e p ro p e rtie s o f m a te ria ls w e re e ffe c tiv e ly e m b o d ie d fo r c o m m o n a p p lic a tio n s in w e ll-k n o w n s t a n d a r d d i m e n s io n s o f, f o r e x a m p le , t i m b e r f lo o r b e a m s o r r o o f tru sse s o f v a rio u s sp a n s . T h e d im e n s io n s o f t h e e le m e n ts o f m a s o n ry b u ild in g s a n d r e ta in in g w alls w e re a lso w ell k n o w n a m o n g th e sp e c ia l­ ist d e a lin g w ith th e s e c ra fts; th is tra d itio n w e n t b a c k m a n y c e n tu rie s . T h e u s e o f ir o n , h o w e v e r, p r e s e n t e d n e w c h a lle n g e s . N o t o n ly w e re its p r o p e r tie s little k n o w n i n t h e m id - e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , b u t th e r e w e re n o lo n g - e s ta b lis h e d s ta n d a r d d e s ig n s a n d , m o s t im p o r ­ t a n t l y , b e in g a m a n u f a c t u r e d m a t e r i a l , its p r o p e r t i e s v a r i e d s ig n ific a n tly a c c o rd in g to th e s o u rc e o f t h e iro n . I t w a s b o t h th e n e e d fo r e n g in e e rs t o k n o w m a te ria ls p ro p e r tie s a n d th e g e n e ra l in q u is itiv e n e s s o f sc ie n tis ts t h a t le d to th e g ro w th o f 288I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей m a te r ia ls te s tin g m th e e a r ly e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . T h e m o s t n o ta b le w as P e tru s v a n M u s s c h e n b ro e k , p ro fe sso r o f p h y sic s a t th e U n iv e rsity o f U tr e c h t a n d la te r a t L e y d e n , w h o s e e n c y c lo p a e d ic b o o k o f m a t e r i a l s p r o p e r t i e s , p u b l i s h e d in 1 7 2 9 , b e c a m e a s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e w o r k f o r o v e r a c e n tu r y . M a n y s c ie n tis ts in c o n t i n e n t a l E u ro p e fo llo w e d M u s s c h e n b r o e k ’s e x a m p le in th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e c e n tu ry . W h e re a s fin d in g a n e x p la n a tio n o f th e stiffn e ss a n d s tre n g th o f m a te r ia ls s u c h as t im b e r , ir o n a n d b r ic k w o r k w a s s till fa r in th e f u tu re ( th e e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu r y ) , th is w a s n o t tr u e o f th e stre n g th a n d s tiffn e ss o f so il. T h e first s u c h e x p la n a tio n , b a s e d o n im a g in in g a n id e a lis e d soil as a s e n e s o f s p h e r e s , w a s m a d e m th e 1690s. C h a r le s A u g u s tin C o u lo m b (1 7 3 6 — 1 8 06) w a s b u ild in g o n th e th e o r e tic a l w o r k o f s e v e ra l F r e n c h s c ie n tis ts w h e n h e p u b lis h e d h is s e m in a l p a p e r o n t h e s u b je c t in 1773. N e v e r th e le s s , th e u s e o f th is m o d e m a p p r o a c h to so il m e c h a n ic s w a s n o t ta k e n u p b y e n g in e e r s in B n ta in u n til th e m i d - n i n e - t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n s im p le d e s ig n r u le s f o r e a r t h e m b a n k m e n ts , d a m s a n d r e ta in in g w a lls b e g a n t o b e r e p la c e d b y a n a ly tic a l m e th o d s Developing structural theory. B y T e lf o r d ’s tim e , s c ie n tis ts o f m a te r ia ls a n d s tr u c t u r e s w e re a b le t o r e la te th e s tr e n g th a n d s tiffn e s s o f b a s ic s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n ts — b e a m s a n d c o lu m n s — t o th e stre n g th s o f th e m a te ria ls, m e a s u r e d in te n s i o n o r c o m p r e s s io n . M u s s c h e n b r o e k h a d a ls o a lr e a d y d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h e 1 720s t h a t th e b u c k lin g lo a d f o r a c o l u m n v a rie s d ir e c tly w ith its c r o s s - s e c tio n a n d in v e rs e ly a s th e s q u a r e o f its le n g th . T h is w a s c o n f ir m e d in t h e o r e tic a l te r m s in th e 1 7 5 0 s b y E u le r w h o in tro d u c e d th e c o n c e p t o f se c o n d m o m e n t o f a re a a n d p r o v e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t b e a r s h is n a m e u s in g th e o r e tic a l m e c h a n ic s . T h e f a c t t h a t in , f o r e x a m p le , 1 780, e n g in e e r s d id n o t u s e th e a p p r o a c h f o r t im b e r e le m e n ts w a s b e c a u s e th e r e w a s n o n e e d t o d o s o — t h e r e w a s a lr e a d y s u f f ic ie n t p r e c e d e n t. T h is c h a n g e d w ith th e u se o f c a s t ir o n w h ic h , b e in g b o th n e w a n d e x p e n s iv e , d e m a n d e d a rig o r o u s a p p r o a c h t o d e s ig n in g m in im u m - w e ig h t s tr u c tu r e s . T h e c a s t- ir o n c o lu m n s u s e d b y S tr u tt in 1792 w e re c r u c if o r m in s e c tio n t o a c h ie v e a n in c r e a s e d s e c o n d m o m e n t o f a r e a w h ile b e in g e a s y t o SUPPLEMENTARY READING 289 c a s t. T h e y w e re a ls o th i c k e r a t t h e i r m i d - h e i g h t , t h e b e t t e r to re sist fa ilu re b y b u c k lin g . B y 1800 m o re e ffic ie n t h o llo w , c y lin d ric a l c o lu m n s o f c o n s ta n t s e c tio n h a d re p la c e d th e c r u c ifo rm ty p e . T h e v e ry e a rlie s t c a s t - i r o n b e a m s , b o t h f o r ra ilw a y t r a c k s b y J e s s o p in 17 8 0 a n d in b u ild in g s b y B ag e in 1 7 9 6 , h a d lo n g itu d in a l s e c tio n s t h a t re fle c t t h e b e n d in g m o m e n t — e i t h e r “ fis h - b e lly ” o r “ h o g -b a c k ” . B a g e p e rfo rm e d c o m p e te n t c a lc u la tio n s f o r th e s tre n g th o f h is i r o n b e a m s a n d c o n f ir m e d h is p r e d ic tio n s w ith p r o o f te s ts . A lth o u g h th e p a ra lle lo g ra m o f fo rc e s w a s w e ll u n d e r s to o d b y th e la te e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , T e lfo rd d id n o t se e th e a n a ly sis o f fo rc e s in p i n - jo in te d fra m e s o r tru sse s. T h e m a in r e a s o n w a s th a t fra m e w o rk s f o r ro o fs a n d b rid g e s w e re still s e e n m a in ly a s s tru c tu r e s fo r r e s is t­ in g b e n d in g (i.e . s o lid b e a m s w ith la rg e h o le s ) , r a t h e r t h a n a n a s s e m b la g e o f te n s io n a n d c o m p r e s s io n e l e m e n ts . N e v e r th e le s s , th e first “ r a tio n a l” a n d p o te n tia lly s ta tic a lly - d e te r m in a te i r o n ro o fs w e re c o n s t r u c t e d in h is life tim e , f o r e x a m p le in s e v e ra l b u ild in g s in B ir m in g h a m a n d in M a n c h e s t e r b e tw e e n 1 8 1 0 a n d 1 825. Full-scale and model testing. S in c e M u s s c h e n b r o e k p e r f o r m e d m o s t o f h is te s ts to e s ta b lis h m a te ria l p ro p e rtie s , th e size o f s p e c im e n h a d b e e n c o n s id e re d largely ir r e le v a n t. H o w e v e r, e n g in e e r s k n e w t h a t m a n y p h e n o m e n a w e re n o t i n d e p e n d e n t o f s c a le . F r o m t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , en g in e e rs — s u c h a s th o se a t th e R o y a l M ilita ry A c a d e m y a t W o o lw ic h a n d th e E c o le d e s P o n ts e t C h a u sse e s — b e g a n te s tin g fu ll-siz e b e a m s a n d c o lu m n s o f t im b e r a n d ir o n t o v e rify p r e d ic tio n s b a s e d o n te s ts o f re d u c e d - s c a le c o m p o n e n ts a n d o n th e t h e o r e tic a l u n d e rs ta n d in g o f in t e r n a l s tre s s e s g e n e r a te d in b e n d in g a n d b u c k lin g . T e lf o r d , fo r e x a m p le , b u ilt s e v e ra l m o d e ls o f th e c h a in s fo r h is M e n a i s u s p e n s io n b rid g e in 181 4 — in c lu d in g o n e 15 m lo n g a t a sc a le o f 1 :20 — to e s ta b lis h th e t e n s io n a t t h e e n d s a n d to v e rify th e s h a p e o f t h e c h a i n u n d e r b rid g e - d e c k lo a d s . E n g in e e r s a t th is tim e w e re n o t y e t u sin g d im e n s io n le s s c o n s ta n ts to s c a le u p th e re s u lts o f m o d e l te s ts — a te c h n i q u e d e v e lo p e d first i n th e 1 8 6 0 s fo r h y d r o ­ d y n a m ic s b y W illia m F r o u d e a n d first e x p lo ite d in t h e d e s ig n o f d a m s a n d c o n c r e te s t r u c tu r e s in t h e 1 9 3 0 s. N e v e r th e le s s , m o d e ls w e re s o m e tim e s u s e d b y e n g in e e rs , fo r e x a m p le T e lfo rd b u ilt se v e ra l m o d e ls o f t h e c h a i n s f o r h is M e n a i s u s p e n s io n b rid g e in 1 8 1 4 — 10 Зак 312 290[Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей in c lu d in g o n e 15 m lo n g a t a scale o f 1:20 — t o establish th e te n s io n a t th e e n d s a n d to v e n fy th e sh a p e o f th e c h a in u n d e r b rid g e -d e c k loads. Drawing in three dimensions. W h ile p la n s , s e c tio n s a n d p e r s p e c tiv e d r a w in g s w e r e w e ll e sta b lis h e d b e f o r e th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , th e s e w e re o f lim ite d u se in d e a lin g w ith c o m p le x t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l g e o m e try . T h is p r o b le m a ttr a c te d t h e g r o w in g in te r e s t o f e n g in e e r s in th e e a rly e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y , e s p e c ia lly f o r d r a w in g la rg e s to n e s o f ir r e g u la r s h a p e — th e s c ie n c e o f s te r e o to m y . B y d ra w in g s to n e s b e fo re c o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n it w a s p o s s ib le t o p r e f a b r ic a te a ll t h e s to n e s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s tr u c t a v a u lt, f o r e x a m p le , a n d th e n a s s e m b le t h e m q u ic k ly — v e ry m u c h m o r e q u ic k ly t h a n th e tr a d itio n a l t e c h n iq u e o f c u ttin g a s to n e o n ly w h e n t h e a d j a c e n t s to n e s b e n e a t h a n d to th e sid e h a d b e e n c u t a n d p la c e d . A l th o u g h th is te c h n iq u e w a s w e ll e s ta b lis h e d in th e w h o le o f c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e b y a r o u n d 1 7 4 0 , it w a s little u s e d in B r ita in a n d th e r e is n o e v id e n c e t h a t T e lf o r d u s e d it. T h e m e t h o d o f g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f a m ilia r t o d a y as o r th o g r a p h ic , o r th ir d - a n g le p r o je c tio n , w a s d e v ise d b y th e F r e n c h e n g in e e r G a s p a r d M o n g e ( 1 7 4 6 - 1 8 1 8 ) . C a lle d “ d e s c r ip tiv e g e o m e tr y ” b y h im , it w a s d e v e lo p e d a s a n e w m e a n s o f s e ttin g o u t f o r tif ic a tio n s in r u g g e d t e r r a i n in o r d e r t o b a la n c e t h e c u t a n d fill a n d a lso “ d e file ” t h e fo rtific a tio n — w h ic h m e a n s e n s u rin g d e fe n d in g c a n n o n c o u ld a tta c k k e y s u r r o u n d in g a re a s a n d th a t th e f o r t w a s n o t v u ln e r a b le t o a tta c k b y c a n n o n m o u n te d o n n e a r b y v a n ta g e p o in ts . T h e w h o le p r o c e s s w a s e x tr e m e ly c o m p le x t o c a lc u la te u s in g t h r e e d im e n s io n a l c o - o r d in a te g e o m e try , h ig h ly p r o n e t o e r r o r , a n d c o u ld ta k e s e v e ra l w e e k s. Im a g in e t h e su rp rise o f h is c o m m a n d in g o ffic e r w h e n th e y o u n g M o n g e c o m p le te d th is ta s k in o n ly a few d a y s. T h e c o m m a n d a n t ’s first r e a c t i o n w a s d is b e lie f b u t, o n c h e c k in g th e w o r k , th is t u r n e d t o w o n d e r . M o n g e ’s te c h n iq u e w a s q u ic k ly d e c la r e d a s ta te s e c r e t a n d , b y a r o u n d 1 8 0 0 , w a s t a u g h t in a ll t h e F r e n c h m ilita r y ac a d e m ie s. Its u se g ra d u a lly e s c a p e d i n to civ il p r o je c ts a n d th e p u b lic d o m a in , in c lu d in g E n g la n d , b y th e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . Facilitating calculations. T h e c a lc u la tio n s t h a t c o u ld b e p e r f o r m e d u s in g d r a w in g s a n d g e o m e tr ic a l c o n s tr u c tio n s h a d b e e n e n h a n c e d b y th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o r th o g r a p h ic p r o je c tio n b y M o n g e . SUPPLEMENTARY READING J 291 G e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , t h o u g h , it w a s th e s u r v e y o r s r a t h e r t h a n d r a f ts m e n w h o w e re t h e m o s t n u m e r a te a m o n g t h o s e in v o lv e d in c o n s tr u c tio n . T h e ir w o rk in v o lv e d m a p p in g th e te r r a in a n d la n d s c a p e , s e ttin g o u t n e w w o rk s s u c h a s b rid g e s , ro a d s a n d c a n a ls , a s w e ll a s e s tim a tin g t h e q u a n titie s o f m a te n a ls in v o lv e d , in c lu d in g e x c a v a tio n s , c u t a n d fill, a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e n a l s r a n g in g f r o m b r ic k , d re s s e d s to n e , m o r t a r , t i m b e r a n d i r o n t o g la s s , le a d a n d tile s f o r b u ild in g s. L a n d su rv e y in g re q u ire d g re a t a c c u r a c y t h a t c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d o n ly b y h a n d c a lc u la tio n s a n d th e u s e o f s ix - , e ig h t- o r s o m e tim e s t e n - f ig u r e ta b le s o f lo g a n th m s , t n g o n o m e t n c r a tio s , s q u a r e s , c u b e s a n d ro o ts . B y th e la te e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y t h e r e w a s a s m a ll b u t g r o w in g n u m b e r o f e n g in e e r s , e s p e c ia lly in c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e , w h o w e re h ig h ly tr a in e d in m a th e m a tic s a n d w e re fa m ilia r w ith b o th c o m p le x a n a ly tic a l g e o m e tr y a n d c a lc u lu s . B e lid o r ’s b o o k “ A r c h ite c tu r e H y d r a u liq u e ” ( 1 7 3 7 - 1 7 5 3 ) w a s t h e firs t e n g in e e r in g b o o k t o u se c a l c u l u s , f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s o f w a t e r flo w . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s u c h s o p h is tic a te d m a th e m a tic s w a s b e y o n d m o s t e n g in e e r s ’ a b ilitie s a n d n eeds. M o s t s ig n if ic a n t o f a ll, th is p e r i o d saw e n g in e e r s s ta r tin g t o u se th e s lid e ru le f o r c a lc u la tio n s t h a t r e q u ir e d n o m o r e t h a n t h r e e fig u re a c c u r a c y — t h a t is m o s t o f th e ir d a y - to - d a y c a lc u la tio n s . T h e s lid e r u le h a d b e e n d e v is e d in th e 162 0 s, v e ry s o o n a f te r th e in v e n t i o n o f lo g a r ith m s , a n d w a s u s e d m a in ly b y a s t r o n o m e r s a n d n a v ig a to r s . B y a b o u t 1 7 7 0 it w a s k n o w n to s o m e e n g in e e r s , b u t w e c a n o n ly g u e s s a t h o w w id e s p r e a d its u s e w as. T h e f ir m o f B o u lto n & W a tt r e c o g n is e d th e u s e f u ln e s s o f t h e s lid e r u le a n d , f r o m t h e m id - 1 7 7 0 s , b e g a n m a k in g w h a t c a m e t o b e k n o w n a s “ S o h o S c a le s” — n a m e d a lte r th e c o m p a n y ’s B ir m in g h a m w o r k s — a s a s id e lin e t o its s t e a m - e n g in e b u s in e s s . T h e fir s t g u id a n c e in a n e n g in e e r in g b o o k o n h o w to u se a slid e r u le w a s in “ A T r e a t i s e o n th e S te a m E n g in e ” b y J o h n F a r e y (1 8 2 7 ) , a t a t im e w h e n slid e r u le s g e n e r a lly s till d id n o t h a v e m o v in g c u r s o r s t o e a se th e ir u se. A lth o u g h T e lf o r d w o u ld h a v e b e e n a w a r e o f t h e u s e o f c o n t o u r lin e s t o s h o w d e p t h s o f t h e s e a , w h i c h w e re d e v is e d b y t h e F r e n c h g e o g r a p h e r P h . B u a c h e i n 1 7 3 7 , h e d id n o t liv e t o s e e t h e r a p id 10* 292 [Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей d e v e lo p m e n ts in t h e g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f n u m e r ic a l d a ta d u r in g th e 1840s th a t in c r e a s e d th e s p e e d o f p e r f o r m in g e n g in e e rin g c a lc u la tio n s . C h a r ts d e v is e d b y L e o n L a la n n e , th e p i o n e e r o f th is t e c h n iq u e , s h o w e d , f o r e x a m p le , h o w t o r e p r e s e n t a n e n tir e y e a r ’s d a ta f o r t e m p e r a tu r e a n d w in d s p e e d s in a sin g le d ia g r a m . H e a lso p u b lis h e d c h a r ts f o r m u ltip lic a tio n o r d iv is io n o f n u m b e r s b y g ra p h ic a l m e a n s . Improving engineering education. T h e s p e c ia lis t e d u c a tio n o f c iv il e n g in e e r s g re w o u t o f v a r io u s s c h o o ls o f m ilita r y e n g in e e r in g in c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e , e s p e c ia lly in F r a n c e , in th e la te s e v e n te e n th a n d e a r ly e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s . T h e fir s t s c h o o l o f e n g in e e r in g o p e n t o t h e p u b lic w a s i n P r a g u e , n o w in th e C z e c h R e p u b lic , in 1707 — a s c h o o l t h a t p r o u d ly c e le b r a te s its h is to r y b a c k t o 1 344, w h e n th e P r a g u e P u b lic E n g in e e r in g a n d M e ta llu rg ic a l S c h o o l w a s f o u n d e d . T h e f a m o u s E c o le d e s P o n ts e t C h a u s s e e s o p e n e d in P a r is in 1747 u n d e r th e d ir e c to r s h ip o f th e b rid g e e n g in e e r J e a n - R o d o lp h e P e r r o n e t. T h e E c o le d e s M in e s fo llo w e d in 1783 a n d t h e firs t o f m a n y e c o le s d ’a r ts e t m e tie r s , w h ic h w e re r a t h e r less a c a d e m ic t h a n t h e E c o le d e s P o n ls e t C h a u s s e e s , t h o u g h h a r d ly less p re s tig io u s , o p e n e d in 1780. T h e E c o le C e n tr a le d e s A r ts e t M a n u f a c tu r e s w a s fo r m e d in 1829. O th e r sc h o o ls w e re o p e n e d t o a d d re s s th e te c h n ic a l n e e d s o f c r a f ts m e n to o , f o r in s ta n c e t h e E c o le R o y a le G r a t u i t e d e D e s s in — th e R o y a l F r e e S c h o o l o f D r a w in g — w h ic h w a s fo u n d e d in 1766. T h e i d e a o f p o ly te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n , d e d ic a te d t o h a r m o n is in g th e o r y a n d p r a c tic e , s p r e a d t h r o u g h c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e w ith r e m a r k a b le s p e e d . S e v e n p o ly te c h n ic s c h o o ls w e re f o r m e d in G e r m a n y in th e first 3 0 y e a rs o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . I n A u s tria s c h o o ls w e re f o r m e d in P ra g u e (1 8 0 6 ), V ie n n a (1 8 1 5 ) a n d C r a c o w (1 8 3 3 ). T h e r e w e re n o s im ila r sc h o o ls in B r ita in d u r in g th is p e r io d . T h e estab lish m e n ts th a t serv ed a n y th in g like th e ro le o f th e c o n tin e n ta l p o ly te c h n ic s w e re a n u m b e r o f m ilita r y a c a d e m ie s th a t t r a in e d e n g in e e rs f o r th e a r m y a n d n a v y , th e m o s t f a m o u s o f w h ic h w a s t h e R o y a l M ilita r y A c a d e m y a t W o o lw ic h in e a s t L o n d o n , e s ta b lis h e d in 1741. SUPPLEMENTARY READING 293 E d in b u r g h U n iv e rs ity w a s t h e firs t t o o f f e r le c tu r e s o n a p p lie d m e c h a n ic s in th e 1790s, b u t s u c h a c o u rs e w a s n o t in te n d e d a s p a r t o f a p r o g r a m m e t o p r o d u c e a c a d e m i c a l l y t r a i n e d e n g in e e r s . E n g in e e r s in B rita in w e re la rg e ly s e lf - e d u c a te d in t h e i r s p a re t im e u n til t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry . Publishing books and periodicals. T h e first c o m p re h e n s iv e b o o k s o n c iv il e n g in e e rin g , w h ic h a lso s e rv e d m a n y o f th e n e e d s o f m ilita ry e n g in e e rs , w e re b y th e m ilita ry e n g i n e e r B e r n a r d F o r e s t d e B e l i d o r ( 1 6 9 7 - 1 7 6 1 ) . H is fir s t, p u b lis h e d in 1 729, w a s “ L a S c ie n c e d e s I n g e n ie u r s ” . D e s p ite its t itle , h o w e v e r, it c o n t a i n e d re la tiv e ly little e n g in e e r in g s c ie n c e a s w e k n o w it (s c ie n c e m e a n t body o f knowledge). B e lid o r ’s s e c o n d b o o k , “ A r c h ite c tu r e H y d r a u liq u e ” (1 7 3 7 — 1 7 5 3 ), in f o u r v o lu m e s , w a s r a d ic a lly d iff e r e n t. I ts s ty le a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l rig o u r f o llo w e d t h a t o f a s c ie n tific t e x t b o o k . T h e s e b o o k s w e re fo llo w e d b y m a n y m o r e w r itte n b y t h e e n g in e e r s w h o g a v e c o u r s e s a t th e g ro w in g n u m b e r o f p o ly te c h n ic s i n c o n t i n e n t a l E u ro p e . B o th S m e a to n a n d T e lfo rd h a d c o p ie s o f B e lid o r’s “A rc h ite c tu re H y d r a u liq u e ” in th e ir lib ra rie s a n d T e lf o r d o w n e d m a n y m o r e o f t h e F r e n c h c la s s ic e n g in e e r in g te x ts p u b lis h e d in h is life tim e , in c lu d in g th e e n c y c lo p a e d ic “ A r t o f B u ild in g ” b y J e a n R o n d e le t ( 1 8 0 5 - 1 8 1 0 ) a n d b o o k s d e s c rib in g b rid g e p r o je c ts b y P e r r o n e t (1 7 8 8 ) a n d W ie b e k in g (1 8 1 0 ) a t a tim e w h e n t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g e q u iv a le n t in E n g lis h . H e a ls o o w n e d s e v e ra l G e r m a n b o o k s — six b y J a c o b L e u p o ld , d a tin g f r o m t h e 1 7 2 0 s a n d a b o o k o n h y d r a u lic e n g in e e r in g b y W ie b e k in g ( 1 8 1 1 - 1 8 1 3 ) . O f th e b o o k s in E n g lis h in th e lib ra rie s o f S m e a to n a n d T e lfo rd , th e g re a t m a jo rity w e re o n m a th e m a tic s a n d p h y sic s. W h ile a n u m b e r o f s c ie n tific a c a d e m ie s , e s p e c ia lly in F r a n c e , p u b lis h e d p a p e r s o f i n te r e s t a n d r e le v a n c e t o e n g in e e r s d u r in g th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y , th e p a p e r s o f th e E c o le N a tio n a le d e s P o n t s e t C h a u s e e s w e re t h e firs t e n tire ly d e v o te d t o civ il e n g in e e r in g . T h e first p e rio d ic a l, p u b lis h e d w ith th e in te n tio n o f k e e p in g p ro fe s s io n a l e n g in e e r s in f o r m e d o f d e v e lo p m e n ts , w a s p r o d u c e d i n 1797 b y J o h a n n E y te lw e in ( 1 7 6 4 - 1 8 4 9 ) , a n e n g in e e r in B e r lin ’s b u ild in g d e p a rtm e n t. 294 [ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Conclusion. F o r th e w h o le o f th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y a n d w e ll in t o th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , F r a n c e le d th e w o r ld in te r m s o f d e v e lo p in g e n g in e e r in g s c ie n c e a n d tr y in g t o u se it in e n g in e e r in g d e sig n . N e v e th e le s s , S m e a to n a n d T e lf o r d w e re a m o n g th e w o r ld ’s le a d in g e n g in e e rs , a n d B r ita in saw m a n y o f th e w o r ld ’s le a d in g e n g in e e r in g p ro je c ts . T h e m a r k e d c o n tr a s t in th e n a tu r e a n d lev el o f e n g in e e r s ’ e d u c a tio n , a n d t h e ir a p p r o a c h to e n g in e e rin g d e sig n b e tw e e n B rita in a n d c o n tin e n ta l E u r o p e , r e m a in e d w e ll in to th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . (New Civil Engineer International, May, 2008) ^ TEXT 3 WINDY CITY WONDER by Jessica Rowson C le v e r e n g in e e r in g h a s m e a n t t h a t N o r t h A m e r ic a ’s ta lle s t re s id e n tia l b u ild in g w ill b e so lid a s a r o c k d e s p ite its w in d y lo c a tio n . N e s tle d a m o n g th e fo re st o f sk y sc ra p e rs o n th e C h ic a g o s k y lin e , th e 9 2 s to r e y T r u m p T o w e r is c u r r e n tly n o tc h in g its w a y u p to b e c o m e th e c ity ’s s e c o n d ta lle s t b u ild in g . T h e 4 1 5 m t o w e r w ill b e c o m p le te d in J a n u a r y 20 0 9 . T h e s te p p e d c o n c r e te b u ild in g h a s b e e n d e s ig n e d t o r e f le c t t h e h e ig h t o f n e a r b y b u ild in g s b y a r c h i t e c t a n d e n g in e e r f o r th e p r o je c t S k id m o r e , O w in g s & M e r r ill ( S O M ) . T h e first s te p a lig n s w ith th e 130 m h ig h W rig le y B u ild in g , th e s e c o n d th e 179 m h ig h M a r in a C ity T o w e rs, a n d th e th ir d th e 21 2 m h ig h I B M P la z a , k n o w n a s 3 3 0 N o r t h W a b a s h . A s im p o r t a n t a s th e s e s te p s — a lso k n o w n a s s e tb a c k s — a re a r c h ite c tu r a lly , th e y a lso h a v e a n im p o r ta n t e n g in e e rin g r o le a s th e y e a c h c o n t a i n a n o u tr ig g e r s ta b ility s y s te m . T h e s e 5 .3 m d e e p b y 1.7 m w id e c o n c r e te m o n o lith s tr a n s f e r la te r a l lo a d s b e tw e e n th e p e r i m e t e r c o lu m n s a n d th e c e n tr a l c o r e . S O M a s s o c ia te p a r t n e r R o b e r t S in n e x p la in s t h a t t h e la te r a l s h e a r r e s is ta n c e o f th e c o r e a n d o v e r tu r n in g re s is ta n c e o f th e p e r im e te r s tr u c tu r e a re m o b ilis e d b y lin k in g t h e m a t d is c r e te lev e ls u s in g o u tr ig g e r t r u s s e s o r b e a m s . H e a d d s t h a t th is m e a n s j u s t a fe w h e a v ie r v e r tic a l e l e m e n ts a re SUPPLEMENTARY READING 295 n e e d e d o n th e p e r i m e t e r t o k e e p th e b u ild in g s ta b le , fre e in g u p th e fac a d e . T h e o u tr ig g e r b e a m s ta k e u p a s to re y h e ig h t a n d a re h e a v ily re in f o r c e d . I n s o m e a r e a s c o n v e n tio n a l b a r s a re e v e n r e p la c e d b y a n e q u iv a le n t a r e a o f s te e l p la te t o e a s e c o n g e s tio n . C o n t r a c t o r B o v is L e n d L e a s e is u s in g s e l f c o m p a c tin g c o n c r e t e t o p e n e t r a t e d e n s e ly re in f o r c e d a re a s . S u rp ris in g ly , t h e ta l l b u ild in g d o e s n o t re q u ir e d a m p e r s t o l im it its m o v e m e n t. T h is is b e c a u s e o f th e s ta b ilis in g e ffe c t o f t h e h e a v y c o n c r e te c o r e a n d c o l u m n s a n d th e s e tb a c k s . T h e a s y m m e tr ic s e tb a c k s c h a n g e th e c ro s s s e c tio n o f th e b u ild in g , s o c h a n g in g t h e f r e q u e n c y o f w in d p a s s in g it T h is m e a n s t h a t v o rtic e s , w h ic h w o u ld c a u s e th e b u ild in g t o m o v e m o re , c a n n o t b u ild u p . A n y m a ssiv e b u ild in g n e e d s m a ssiv e f o u n d a tio n s . T h e b u ild in g s its o n 3 0 m lo n g p ile s f o u n d e d o n b e d r o c k . A p e r m a n e n t s te e l lin e r , w h ic h se a ls th e e x c a v a tio n , c u ts th r o u g h 18 m o f s tif f c la y a n d 12 m o f b o u ld e r s a n d f r a c tu r e d r o c k t o f o r m a s o c k e t in s o lid ro c k . O n c o m p l e t i o n t h e T r a m p T o w e r w ill h o ld t h e r e c o r d fo r t h e w o r ld ’s h ig h e s t r e s id e n tia l b u ild in g , b u t o n ly f o r a y e a r. A lte r th a t it w ill b e d w a rfe d b y t h e 6 1 0 m , 150 s to re y C h ic a g o S p ire . Finite element analysis. E n g in e e r s h a d t o d e a l w ith th e in h e r e n t p r o b l e m o f t h e u n e v e n l o a d d is tr ib u tio n o f a m a s s iv e , a s y m m e tr ic a l b u ild in g a n d its te n d e n c y t o m o v e s id e w a y s u n d e r its o w n w e ig h t. T h e s o lu tio n w a s to c a r r y o u t a tim e - b a s e d fin ite e le m e n t a n a ly s is o n th e s tru c tu r e so t h a t m o v e m e n ts c o u l d b e p r e d i c t e d a n d c o m p e n s a te d f o r d u rin g c o n s tru c tio n . B ovis L e n d L e a se u s e d th e s e re su lts to m a k e m illim e tre a d ju s tm e n ts a t e v e ry s to re y to b rin g th e b u ild in g b a c k t o p lu m b . N o n - lin e a r a n a ly s is p r e d ic te d th e s h o r t a n d lo n g te r m d is p la c e m e n t o f C h ic a g o ’s T r u m p T o w e r, w h ic h in c lu d e d th e e ffects o f c r e e p a n d sh rin k a g e . I f n o h o r iz o n ta l c o r r e c tio n h a d b e e n m a d e d u rin g c o n s tr u c tio n , th e r o o f c o u ld h av e m o v e d 3 0 0 m m o u t o f lin e d u e t o th e c o m b in e d e ffe c ts o f g ra v ity , c r e e p a n d s h rin k a g e . Foundations. A 3 m d e e p p ile d ra f t w a s p o u r e d c o n tin u o u s ly o v e r a p e r io d o f 2 2 h o u rs . T h e c o n c r e te w a s p o u r e d u s in g c o n v e y o r b e lts s o t h a t v e ry fe w v ib ra to rs w e re n e e d e d ; th e te m p e r a tu r e h a d t o b e c a re fu lly 296[Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей c o n tr o lle d a s th e c o n c r e te c u r e d d u e t o th e ra ft t h ic k n e s s I f th e d iffe re n tia l te m p e r a tu r e a c ro ss th e d e p th w a s to o la ig e , stresses w o u ld s e t u p a n d le a d t o m ic r o c r a c k in g . (New Civil Engineer International, October, 2007) ^ TEXT 4 "ROSSIA" WITH LOVE by Jessica Rowson E u r o p e ’s ta lle s t s k y s c r a p e r is b e in g b u ilt in M o s c o w . I f y o u ’re th in k in g o f d e sig n in g a ta ll b u ild in g , m a k e it a t le a s t 6 0 0 m o r n o b o d y w ill b a t a n e y e lid . M o s c o w ’s la te s t a d d itio n t o t h e 6 0 0 m p lu s c lu b is th e 6 1 2 m h ig h , R o s s ia T o w e r , a c o o l 2 m h ig h e r t h a n th e C h ic a g o S p ire . R o s s ia ’s site is c u r r e n tly b e in g c le a r e d t o m a k e w a y f o r w h a t w ill b e E u r o p e ’s ta lle s t b u ild in g . T h e s k y s c r a p e r w ill in c o r p o r a te r e ta il a n d o ffic e s p a c e , a h o te l a n d a p a r t m e n t s o n its 120 flo o rs , th r e e o f t h e m b e lo w g r o u n d le v e l. T o th e u n tr a in e d e y e , R o s s ia is a n e lo n g a te d p y r a m id , o r ro c k e t s h a p e d s tr u c tu r e , b u t o n th e in s id e , th e s tr u c tu r e te lls a d if f e r e n t s to ry . A t its b a s e t h e r e a r e th r e e c o lo s s a l, h ig h s tr e n g th c o n c r e te a b u tm e n ts c la m p in g th e w h o le s tru c tu re d o w n . E a c h a b u tm e n t fo rm s th e b a se o f th r e e w in g s o f th e b u ild in g , f r o m w h ic h c o lu m n s ra d ia te . T h e w in g s c o n v e r g e a t a c e n tr a l s p in e , o r c o n c r e te c o r e , w h ic h ru n s th e full h e ig h t o f th e to w e r. C o n s u lta n ts W a te r m a n In te r n a tio n a l a n d H a lv o r s o n h a v e d e s ig n e d t h e s te e l f r a m e a n d c o m p o s ite f lo o r s tr u c tu r e . T h e p la n a n d p r o f ile o f th e b u ild in g ta k e o n t h e e ffic ie n t g e o m e tr y o f a tr ia n g le t o a c h ie v e m a x im u m s ta b ility u s in g th e m in im u m a m o u n t o f m a te r ia l. I n itia lly a r c h ite c t, F o s t e r & P a r tn e r s , d e s ig n e d th e to w e r a s th r e e d is c r e te b lo c k s , a r r a n g e d in a Y sh a p e in p la n . B u t th is m e a n t t h a t e a c h b lo c k w a s t o o s le n d e r , h a v in g a h e ig h t t o w id th r a tio o f 1 0 :1 . “ S t r u c t u r a l s o l u t i o n s w e r e p o s s ib le f o r t h i s o p t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t to w e r s , b u t a t th e s e a s p e c t r a tio s , th e s o lu tio n s w o u ld b e i n e f f ic ie n t,” e x p la in s W a te r m a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o je c t d i r e c to r H u g h D o c h e r ty . T h e d e c is io n w a s m a d e t o m e rg e th e b lo c k s , so SUPPLEMENTARY READING J 297 t h e y l e a n e d in to t h e c e n t r a l c o r e T h e s lo p in g p a r a lle l c o lu m n s c o u ld th e n b ra c e th e c o re la te ra lly a s w e ll a s c a rry in g v e rtic a l lo a d s . T h e r e s u lt w a s a m o r e e ffic ie n t h e ig h t t o w id th ra tio o f 5 :1 . “ S o in t e r m s o f h e ig h t t o b a s e , t h e b u ild in g is s q u a t , ” sa y s D o c h e r ty T h e d e s ig n w a s s ta rtin g t o lo o k lik e t h e fa m ilia r f o r m o f a c a b le s ta y e d m a s t. H o w e v e r i n s te a d o f te n s io n c a b le s , R o s s ia u s e s t h e s lo p in g c o l u m n s t o a c t in c o m p r e s s io n — p r o p p i n g th e c e n t r a l c o r e a n d e s s e n tia lly a c tin g lik e th r e e d im e n s io n a l a rc h e s . T h e f a n c o lu m n s c a r r y g ra v ity lo a d a n d w in d o v e r tu r n in g fo rc e s a s d i r e c t a x ia l lo a d s . A n d a s t h e w e ig h t o f th e b u ild in g a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s e x c e e d s th e d e s ig n w in d lo a d in t h e m a jo r ity o f t h e c o l u m n s a n d c o r e , t h e r e is little t e n s i o n i n t h e s y s te m . P ilin g c o n t r a c t o r S o le ta n c h e is c u r r e n tly b u ild in g a d i a p h r a g m w a ll o n t h e s ite , b u t it w ill b e a t le a s t six y e a rs b e f o r e th e 100 m t a l l m a s t c ro w n s t h e b u ild in g . T h e to w e r ’s t h r e e w in g s c o m p r is e s te e l a n d c o n c r e t e c o lu m n s w h ic h fa n o u t fro m t h e th re e m a ssiv e a b u tm e n ts a t th e b a se . V isually, th is g iv es th e fo rm o f a t r i p o d s u p p o rtin g th e re s t o f t h e b u ild in g — a s tr u c t u r a l fo r m k n o w n fo r its e ffic ie n c y . “ T h r e e le g g e d s to o ls a re g re a t. W ith f o u r le g s y o u s ta r t t o b r in g in r e d u n d a n c y , ” sa y s W a te r m a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o je c t d i r e c t o r H u g h D o c h e r t y . H a v in g e s ta b lis h e d th e p a t h fo r v e rtic a l a n d la te r a l l o a d s , t h e r e m a in in g c h a lle n g e w a s to r s io n . T h e f a c a d e o f th e w in g s is s tif f e n e d b y a s e rie s o f “ re v e rse fa n c o l u m n s ” w h ic h tr ia n g u la te th e fa c a d e . “ T h e w in g s a re d e s ig n e d a s b o x e s w ith c ro s s e d b ra c in g . T h e s e re s is t t w is tin g ,” h e e x p la in s . T h e rig id fa c a d e is f u r t h e r s tiffe n e d b y s te e l c h e v r o n b r a c in g u p t o t h e f o u r t h flo o r o n t h e o u t e r e d g e o f e a c h w in g . T h is p ro v id e s s u f fic ie n t t o r s io n a l s tiffn e s s . B u t a s tr u c tu r e w ith slo p in g c o lu m n s c a u se s o th e r p ro b le m s in t h e f o rm o f h o riz o n ta l lo a d s a m a s s in g a t th e b a s e . “ W e u s e d t e n s io n tie s in th e ra ft t o s to p t h e fe e t fro m sp re a d in g . W e c o u ld h a v e p r o p p e d a g a in s t d ia p h r a g m w alls o r re lie d o n f ric tio n , b u t t e n s io n tie s w e re t h e m o s t c o n tro lla b le o p t i o n , ” sa y s D o c h e r ty . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s e q u e n c e re q u ir e s t h e f a n n in g c o lu m n s to b e d e s ig n e d fo r e r e c tio n lo a d s L a t e r t h e y w ill b e e n c a s e d in r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e t o a c h ie v e t h e fin a l s tr e n g th fo r p e r m a n e n t lo a d s. (New Civil Engineer International, February, 2008) 298I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей ^ ТЕХТ 5 KARACHI CRACKER B u ild in g a s u p e r ta ll t o w e r in K a r a c h i c a lls f o r i n te r n a tio n a l k n o w -h o w a n d a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f lo c a l s u b c o n tra c to rs ’ c a p ab ilities. In K a ra c h i, P a k i s t a n ’s s e c o n d c ity , a ta ll b u ild in g is c h a r a c te r is e d a s a n y th in g o v e r 10 sto re y s. T h e lo ftie st h a v e r e a c h e d 2 0 . S o it is n o o v e r s ta te m e n t t o sa y th a t th e 78 s to re y K a r a c h i P o r t T o w e r , c o n s tr u c tio n o f w h ic h is s c h e d u le d t o s ta r t th is y e a r , w ill tr a n s f o r m t h e c ity ’s sk y lin e . C o m p a r e d t o th e B u ij D u b a i, w h ic h w ill b e th e w o r ld ’s ta lle st b u ild in g a t 146 o r m o r e sto re y s, 78 s to re y s d o e s n ’t s o u n d so re m a r k a b le . B u t K a r a c h i P o r t T o w e r w ill b e th e ta lle s t b u ild in g o n th e I n d i a n s u b c o n tin e n t. B u ild in g o n th is s c a le in P a k is ta n is a o n e - o f f a n d p o s e s s o m e in te r e s tin g c h a lle n g e s . N o b o d y i n t h e c o u n tr y h a s e v e r c a r r ie d o u t a s ite in v e s tig a tio n f o r a b u ild in g o f th is s iz e b e f o r e . E x c e p tio n a lly d e e p a n d la rg e fo u n d a tio n s a re re q u ir e d b u t lo c a l b a tc h in g p la n ts a re n o t e q u ip p e d t o p r o d u c e c o n c r e te in th e v o lu m e s a n d s tr e n g th r e q u ir e d . T h e s p e c ia lis t fa ls e w o rk , f o r m w o r k , c r a n a g e a n d c o n c r e te p u m p i n g e q u i p m e n t n e e d e d f o r u l t r a - n i g h b u ild in g s d o e s n o t y e t e x is t in P a k is ta n . “ C o n s t r u c t i o n w ill r e q u ir e i n te r n a tio n a l k n o w - h o w , b u t w ith lo c a l k n o w le d g e . T h r e e j o i n t v e n tu r e s o f f o r e ig n m a in c o n t r a c t o r s w ith lo c a l f irm s h a v e b e e n s h o r tlis te d ,” r e v e a ls M o t t M a c D o n a l d d i r e c t o r S te v e G r e g s o n , w h o is l e a d i n g s t r u c t u r a l , f a c a d e , m e c h a n ic a l a n d e le c tr ic a l, a n d fire e n g in e e r in g . “ B u t w h ic h e v e r o f th e t h r e e is s e le c te d , th e y w ill b e h e a v ily r e lia n t o n lo c a l s u b c o n tr a c to r s .” T h r o u g h o u t th e d e sig n p r o c e s s a c lo se e y e h a s b e e n k e p t o n b u ild a b ility a n d m a k in g th e s t r u c tu r e s u ita b le f o r lo c a l c o n d itio n s a n d skills. C lie n t K a ra c h i P o r t T r u s t is th e p o r t a u th o r ity a n d o p e r a t o r a n d is a lso a m a jo r p r o p e r ty a n d in f r a s tr u c tu r e o w n e r . It is u n d e r ta k in g th e p r o je c t o n a s p e c u la tiv e b a sis. I n a d d itio n to o ffic e s p a c e it a lso w a n ts h o u s in g , a h o te l a n d a c o n f e r e n c e c e n tr e , a n d it s p e c if ie d “ s o m e th in g ic o n i c ” . M o tt M a c D o n a ld a n d a r c h ite c t A e d a s w o n th e d e sig n c o m p e titio n last y e a r a n d a re ta k in g th e desig n t o “ d e ta ile d SUPPLEMENTARY READING 299 c o n c e p t ” s ta g e . O ffic e s w ill o c c u p y g r o u n d le v e l u p t o flo o r 5 8 , a h o te l w ill ta k e u p flo o rs 59 t o 7 6 a n d t h e t o p tw o flo o rs w ill b e a p a r t m e n t s a n d le is u re fa c ilitie s . T h e c o n t r a c t o r w ill b e a p p o in te d t o d e liv e r th e $ 3 9 6 M p lu s s c h e m e u n d e r a F I D 1 C d e s ig n a n d b u ild c o n tra c t. S te e l c o n s t r u c t i o n is r a r e in P a k is ta n , s o K a r a c h i P o r t T o w e r w ill b e b u ilt f ro m c o n c r e te . It w ill c o n s is t o f a c y lin d r ic a l c o r e r in g e d b y c o lu m n s a t th e b u ild in g p e r im e te r . S t r u c tu r a lly , s q u a re c o r e s a re stiffe r, G re g s o n n o te s . T h e c y lin d e r w a s s p e c if ie d f o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l re a s o n s a n d t o a c h ie v e s p a tia l e f fic ie n c y w ith in t h e c i r c u la r f o o tp r in t o f t h e to w e r. B u t la c k o f s tiffn e s s h a s b e e n m o r e t h a n m a d e u p f o r b y in c re a s in g t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e c o r e t o 3 1 .5 m a n d ty in g in t h e rin g o f p e r i m e t e r c o lu m n s . T h e c o r e s iz e a n d o t h e r a s p e c ts o f t h e s tr u c t u r a l d e s ig n w e re d ic t a t e d b y th e p o s t - 9 / 1 1 r e t h i n k o f fire e v a c u a tio n f r o m ta ll b u ild in g s , d riv e n b y M o tt M a c D o n a l d ’s fire sp e c ia lis ts . “ Y o u u s e d t o b e to ld i f t h e r e ’s a fire , e v a c u a te u s in g t h e s t a i r s ,” s a y s J u s tin G a r m a n , o n e o f M o t t M a c D o n a ld ’s f ire e n g in e e rs . “ B u t t h e W o rld T r a d e C e n t e r d is a s te r s h o w e d t h a t s ta ir c a p a c ity w a s n ’t e n o u g h , a n d t h a t s o m e p e o p le w e re p h y s ic a lly in c a p a b le o f d e s c e n d in g t e n s o f s to re y s b y sta ir. “ S o n o w , f o r v e ry ta ll b u ild in g s , lifts a re b e in g lo o k e d o n a s in te g r a l t o th e fire e v a c u a tio n s tr a te g y .” L ift c a p a c ity h a s b e e n d e s ig n e d fo r a n o ffic e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s ity o f o n e p e r s o n p e r 11 m 2, so th e re w ill b e a lo t o f th e m . K a ra c h i P o rt T o w e r w ill b e e q u ip p e d w ith a c o m b i n a t i o n o f e x p re s s a n d lo c a l lifts. H ig h - s p e e d lifts, m o v in g p e o p le o v e r la rg e n u m b e rs o f flo o rs, w ill b e d o u b le d ic k e rs. P a s s e n g e rs w ill t h e n c a t c h lo c a l lifts f ro m tr a n s i t i o n z o n e s to t h e i r d e s tin e d flo o r. O v e r t h e h e ig h t o f th e to w e r t h e r e w ill b e th r e e tr a n s itio n z o n e s . S tru c tu ra lly th e s e a re v e ry d iffe re n t t o th e to w e r ’s ty p ic a l o p e n p la n flo o rs. F l o o r sla b s t h r o u g h o u t t h e t o w e r w ill b e 2 6 0 m m th ic k p o s t - t e n s i o n e d c o n c r e te , s tiffe n e d b y a 4 0 0 m m d e e p e d g e b e a m . C o lu m n s w ill b e t ie d in to th e c i r c u la r rin g b y a n 8 5 0 m m - d e e p d o w n s ta n d . B u t th e tw o -s to re y tra n s itio n z o n e s w ifi b e o f fa r h e a v ie r c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h t h i c k e r f lo o r s la b s a n d h e a v ily r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e te o u trig g e r s h e a r w alls ru n n in g f ro m t h e c o re to th e b u ild in g ЗООI Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей р е п m e te r c o lu m n s . E a c h z o n e w ill h o u se a t e c h n ic a l flo o r d e d ic a te d t o b u ild in g s e rv ic e s, a n d a f ir e - p r o o f e d re fu g e It is t o th e s e re fu g e s t h a t p e o p le w ill b e le d i f fire b r e a k s o u t. T h e y w ill b e s p e e d e d t o g r o u n d le v e l in e x p re s s lifts. T h e tr a n s itio n z o n e s h e a r w alls p la y a n im p o r ta n t ro le in lin k in g th e c o re a n d c o lu m n s. G re g s o n says t h a t a t th e low est o f th e te c h n ic a l f lo o rs t h e s tiffe n in g e f fe c t o f th e o u tr ig g e r w a lls is m in im a l. “ W h e n w e m o d e lle d th e s t r u c tu r e w e f o u n d w e d o n ’t n e e d o u tr ig g e r w a lls t h e r e , s o w e ’v e o m itte d t h e m a n d g a in e d a s ig n ific a n t c o s t s a v in g .” D e s ig n h a s h a d t o d e a l w ith t h e o ld p r o b le m o f a x ia l s h o r te n in g b e tw e e n c o r e a n d c o lu m n s u n d e r d e a d lo a d . T h is o c c u r s w h e n a s tr u c tu r a l m e m b e r is s q u a s h e d b y th e w e ig h t o f th e s tr u c tu r e ab o v e . T h e ta lle r th e c o lu m n , th e g r e a te r th e d e g re e o f p o te n tia l s h o rte n in g . S iz e d p u r e ly f o r s tr u c tu r a l e f f ic ie n c y , c o lu m n s w o u ld h a v e s h o r t e n e d b y m o r e t h a n 7 5 m m , G r e g s o n n o te s “ Y o u c a n a llo w f o r a d e g r e e o f a x ia l s h o r te n in g b y i n t r o d u c in g a s lig h t c a m b e r in to t h e f lo o r sla b . T h a t c a m b e r c o m e s d o w n a s y o u b u ild th e s t r u c tu r e u p , a n d th e f lo o r e n d s u p le v e l.” B u t a g r e a te r t h a n 75 m m c o r r e c tio n w a s a t th e e d g e o f t e c h n ic a l fe a sib ility . C o lu m n s h a v e t h e r e f o r e b e e n s iz e d t o r e d u c e s tr e s s a n d s h o r te n in g . I n p la n t h e y a r e e lo n g a te d t r ia n g le s w ith r o u n d e d c o m e r s , m e a s u r in g 2 m w id e b y 3 m d e e p . C o l u m n s iz e s d im in is h a s th e y rise u p t h e b u ild in g — first in w id th , t h e n in d e p th . G r e g s o n says th a t lo w e r d o w n th e to w e r, a x ia l s h o r te n in g c o u ld h a v e b e e n r e d u c e d b y sp e c ify in g v e ry h ig h - s tr e n g th c o n c r e te . “ B u t w e w a n t to k e e p th e c o n c r e te m ix w ith in th e re a lm s o f w h a t is feasible in P a k ista n .” A c h ie v in g C 100 w o u ld re q u ire th e u se o f ex o tic a d d itiv e s a n d p r e c is e m ix c o n tr o l. C 6 5 c o n c r e te w ill b e e a s ie r t o b a t c h a n d m o r e fo ig iv in g in c o n s tr u c tio n . C o n c e s s io n s t o th e lo c a l c o n s tr u c tio n m a rk e t h ave also b e e n m a d e in t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o lu m n s a n d in t h e t o w e r ’s f o u n d a tio n s . “ W e in itia lly l o o k e d a t f o llo w in g t h e s p ir a l w ith t h e c o lu m n s , s o t h e y w o u ld h a v e b e e n r a k in g ,” re c a lls G re g s o n . H o w e v e r, “ t o m a k e th e m w o r k it w o u ld h a v e r e q u ir e d v e ry h e a v y r e in f o r c e m e n t a n d p r e c is e s te e l fix in g . B e c a u s e t h e r e ’s n o p r e c e d e n t f o r a b u ild in g o f th is h e ig h t in P a k is ta n , w e fe lt it s e n s ib le n o t t o a d d a v o id a b le c o m p le x ity .” T h o u g h c o lu m n s a re o r ie n te d to th e c u r v a tu r e o f th e SUPPLEMENTARY READING 301 f a c a d e , a n a lte r n a tiv e w a y o f e x p r e s s in g t h e s p ir a l w a s f o u n d , sa y s G r e g s o n . “ T h e s p ir a l is a c h ie v e d b y c a n tile v e r in g th e f lo o r p la te b y j u s t o v e r 3 m o n o p p o s in g s id e s o f th e to w e r . A s y o u g o u p th e to w e r , th e c a n tile v e r m o v e s a r o u n d a fe w d e g r e e s .” (New Civil Engineer International, May, 2008) ^TEXT 6 WARSAW WONDER C a re fu l a d a p tio n o f a n e x istin g tw o - s to r e y b a s e m e n t in P o la n d ’s c a p ita l h a s m e a n t t h a t it c a n t a k e th e i n c r e a s e d l o a d f r o m t h e n e w 5 4 - s to r e y Z l o t a 4 4 r e s id e n tia l to w e r . W a r s a w , P o l a n d ’s c a p ita l, is s o m e th in g o f a s u r p r is e . T h e c ity w a s a lm o s t d e s tr o y e d i n th e S e c o n d W o r ld W a r a n d f e w e r t h a n a f if th o f its b u ild in g s w e re le ft s ta n d in g . I ts r e d e v e lo p m e n t u n d e r th e c o u n t r y ’s p o s t - w a r c o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t w a s , f o r th e m o s t p a r t , r e la tiv e ly m o d e s t, w ith th e n o ta b le e x c e p tio n o f th e im p e c ­ c a b ly r e c o n s tr u c te d o ld to w n . E ls e w h e r e , s ta r k , s y s te m - b a s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c e d a h a r d to - lo v e , M o d e r n is t a r c h ite c tu r e k n o w n a s s o c ia l re a lis m . I n r e c e n t y e a rs th e c ity h a s e m b r a c e d th e o b lig a to ry g la s s - a n d - s te e l lo o k o f th e m o d e m c ity . B u t t h a t t o o is set to c h a n g e w ith a n in c re a s in g n u m b e r o f ic o n ic l a n d m a r k b u ild in g s b y h ig h - p r o f ile i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r c h i ­ te c ts in th e p ip e lin e . A new movement. Z l o t a 4 4 is a 19 2 m - ta ll r e s id e n tia l t o w e r d e s ig n e d b y U S b a s e d a r c h ite c t D a n ie l L ib e sk in d , w h o w as b o m in P o la n d t o p a r e n ts w h o h a d s u r v iv e d t h e H o lo c a u s t. T h e b u ild in g is p a r t o f a n e w m o v e m e n t t h a t is, a c c o r d in g t o L ib e s k in d , r e d e f in in g W a r s a w “ th r o u g h c u ltu r e , f a s h io n a n d a n u n r iv a lle d a p p r o a c h t o liv in g ” . T h is m a y b e so , b u t th e p r o je c t c o u ld a lso p la y a n i m p o r ta n t ro le in r e d e f in in g P o l a n d ’s fle d g lin g g e o te c h n ic a l c o m m u n i t y . F o u n ­ d a t i o n d e s ig n o n th e p r o je c t is b y A r u p , w h o s e P o lis h g e o te c h n ic a l g r o u p is le d b y M a r iu s z L e s z c z y n s k i. L e s z c z y n s k i, w h o c u t h is t e e t h w o r k in g a s a g e o te c h n ic a l d e s ig n e r f o r B u r o H a p p o l d in th e 302I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей U K , say s P o la n d ’s g e o te c h n ic a l s e c to r is la rg e ly u n d e r d e v e lo p e d . M o s t g e o te c h n ic a l a n d f o u n d a tio n d e s ig n w o rk , h e says, is c a r r ie d o u t b y s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r s w h o a re “ g e o te c h n ic a l b y e x p e r ie n c e ” . A few un iv e rsity p ro fe sso rs ra n c o n s u lta n c y p ra c tic e s as a sid e lin e a n d th e y are d e e m e d c u s to d ia n s o f th e n a tio n ’s g e o te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e . F o r A r u p , it h a s b e e n s o m e th in g o f a n u p h ill stru g g le to d e v e lo p a m a r k e t f o r to p - e n d c o n s u lta n c y b a s e d a r o u n d g e o te c h n ic a l e x p e rtise w ith in a c o m m e r c ia l p riv a te b u sin e ss. B u t t h r o u g h p r o je c ts s u c h a s Z lo ta 4 4 , A r u p ’s g e o te c h n ic a l c a p a b ility is b e g in n in g to b e re c o g n ise d a m o n g P o la n d ’s w id e r en g in e e rin g c o m m u n ity a n d , m o re i m p o r ta n tly , th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d i n v e s tm e n t c o m m u n ity . A r u p ’s f o u n d a t i o n d e s ig n h a s t a k e n p r a c t i c a l P o l i s h g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g in e e n n g t o n e w h e ig h ts o f s o p h is tic a tio n , as w e ll a s sa v in g th e c lie n t m o n e y . D e v e lo p e r O r e o G r o u p ’s g le a m in g n e w 5 4 - s to r e y e d ific e w ill o c c u p y a c e n tr a l W a rs a w lo c a tio n a c ro s s th e r o a d fr o m th e im p o s in g P a la c e o f C u ltu r e a n d S c ie n c e , a n a r c h ite c tu r a l s h o w ­ c a se f r o m t h e c o m m u n is t e ra. O r e o ’s s ite w a s p r e v io u s ly o c c u p ie d b y a s e v e n - s to r e y o ffic e d e v e lo p m e n t c o n s tr u c te d in 1 9 8 9 , w ith t w o b a s e m e n t le v e ls a ll f o u n d e d o n a ra ft. W h e n b u ilt, it w a s t h e first a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i a p h r a g m w a lls in th e c ity . A m a jo r c h a lle n g e is th e f a c t t h a t th e s ite is c o n s tr a in e d o n a ll s id e s , w ith n e ig h b o u r in g b u ild in g s ju s t 6 0 0 m m f r o m t h e b a s e m e n t w a ll. T h e o r ig in a l in te n tio n t o p r o v id e f o u r o r fiv e le v e ls o f u n d e r g r o u n d c a r p a r k in g w o u ld h a v e m e a n t n o t o n ly a m a jo r d e m o litio n j o b t o r e m o v e th e e x is tin g th ic k b a s e ­ m e n t r a ft, b u t a ls o a p h e n o m e n a l a m o u n t o f m o n ito r in g a n d a v e ry c o s tly le g a l u n d e r ta k in g — e v e n a s s u m in g c o n s t r u c t i o n w e n t e x a c tly t o p la n . A r m e d w ith t h is k n o w le d g e , O r e o r e th o u g h t a n d re d e s ig n e d t h e b u ild in g ’s lo w e r f lo o rs, m a k in g u s e o f ju s t tw o b a s e m e n t le v e ls a n d a llo w in g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o m m e r c ia l a n d c a r p a r k in g t o e x te n d u p t o th e e ig h th le v e l. S tr u c tu r a l lo a d s a t f o u n d a tio n le v e l w e r e o f th e o r d e r o f 6 0 0 K P a - 8 0 0 K P a , b u t r a t h e r t h a n p r o v id in g a d e e p p ile d s o lu tio n A r u p in v e s tig a te d w h e t h e r it c o u l d b e d e s ig n e d a s a p ile d r a f t s y ste m . T h e s e w o u ld b e d e s ig n e d s im ila r t o t h o s e u s e d in F r a n k f u r t, w h e r e p ile s a r e d e s ig n e d p u r e ly t o lim it s e ttle m e n t, r a t h e r t h a n t o c a r r y l o a d s . A s a l o c a l t w is t t o t h is a p p r o a c h , A m p p r o p o s e d u s in g SUPPLEMENTARYREADING 303 sin g le d ia p h r a g m w all p a n e ls as b a rre tte s . F r o m a c o n s tr u c tio n p o in t o f v ie w th is m e a n t th e o r ig in a l d ia p h r a g m w all c o u ld b e le ft in p la c e , th e o ld r a f t s h a v e d o ff, a n d a n e w r a ft c a s t o n t o p o f it. T h e n e w r a ft w o u ld b e 2 m th ic k b e lo w t h e t o w e r a re a , r e d u c in g to a th ic k n e s s o f 1.5 m else w h e re . T h is a p p r o a c h w o u ld p r o d u c e a m u c h le ss e x p e n s iv e f o u n d a ­ tio n . L e sz c z y n sk i re a lise d th is a p p r o a c h re q u ir e d in v e s tig a tio n u sin g 3 D f in ite e le m e n t a n a ly s is t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r it w o u ld w o r k a s a t r u e p ile d r a f t a n d a ls o t o d e te r m in e h o w th e c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e b a r r e tte s a n d t h e r a f t a f f e c te d th e b e h a v io u r o f t h e f o u n d a tio n . A n a c c u r a te d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e l e n g th o f t h e b a r r e tte s w a s a ls o needed. Leszczynski’s hunch. F o r L e s z c z y n s k i, it w a s v ita l t h a t t h e a n a ly s is a c c o u n t e d f o r s o i l - s tr u c tu r e in te r a c tio n a n d t h a t a m o r e s o p h is tic a te d s o il m o d e l t h a n M o h r C o u lo m b w a s u s e d . T h e a p p r o a c h m e a n t A m p h a d t o c o m m is s io n a m u c h m o r e c o m p r e h e n s iv e g r o u n d in v e s tig a tio n th a n is t y p ic a l in P o la n d , o n t h e b a s is t h a t th e r e w o u ld b e little p o i n t in d o in g a c o m p le x f in ite e l e m e n t a n a ly s is i f it w e re n o t c o n f i d e n t it h a d c o r r e c tly id e n tif ie d th e g r o u n d c o n d itio n s . T h e in v e s tig a tio n in c l u d e d e ig h t b o r e h o le s a n d e ig h t c o n e p e n e t r a t i o n te s ts , w ith s h e a r - w a v e v e lo c ity m e a s u r e m e n t s t o d e te r m in e s tr a in ra tio s . B y ta k in g s a m p le s a n d r e c o n s titu tin g th e s e a t th e i r in s itu d e n sity , A r u p w a s a b le to c o rre la te th e g r o u n d stiffn ess t o its g r a d in g a n d d e n s ity . T h is c o n f ir m e d L e s z c z y n s k i’s h u n c h s u p p o r t e d b y o b s e r v e d s e ttle m e n ts in e x is tin g b u ild in g s i n W a rs a w t h a t th e g r o u n d w a s m u c h s tif f e r t h a n a llo w e d f o r in c o n v e n tio n a l a n a ly sis. I n p r o f ile , th e g r o u n d a t t h e s ite c o m p r is e d th e t h i c k a n d u b iq u ito u s b la n k e t o f m a d e g r o u n d , p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t W a rs a w a s a n u n c o m f o r ta b le r e m i n d e r o f th e w a r. B e lo w th is , t h e n a t u r a l g r o u n d is m a d e u p o f t w o la y e r s o f b o u l d e r c la y , th e r e s u lt o f tw o g la c ia tio n s . T h is c la y , sa y s L e s z c z y n s k i, is “ a v e ry g o o d m a te r ia l, v e ry s tiff, n o t s u s c e p tib le t o sw e llin g a n d h a s a h ig h c o n t e n t o f g r a v e l a n d b o u l d e r s ” . T h e b o u l d e r c la y h o r iz o n s a r e u n d e r l a i n b y a v e ry d e n s e in te r g la c ia l g r a v e l a n d s a n d a n d , b e lo w t h is , a s tif f T e r tia r y C la y , s im ila r t o L o n d o n C la y a t a b o u t 4 0 m . A m p u s e d M I D A S 304I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей G T S fin ite e le m e n t so ftw a re . T h is in d ic a te d t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n b a r re tte s d id n o t n e e d t o e x te n d to th e d e e p c la y a n d c o u ld b e s h o r t­ e n e d fr o m 2 0 m t o 17.5 m . I t a ls o s h o w e d t h a t a p i n n e d , r a t h e r t h a n a fix e d , c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e ra ft a n d t h e b a r r e tte s w a s b e t t e r i n te r m s o f b e n d in g m o m e n ts , a lth o u g h th is c r e a te d th e n e e d t o “ b e e f u p ” t h e s te e l in t h e ra ft lo c a lly T h e a n a ly s is a ls o s h o w e d t h a t , p e r h a p s c o u n t e r ­ in tu itiv e ly , t h e lo a d is a c tu a lly c a r r ie d b y t h e b a r r e tte s , r e s u ltin g is v e ry little s tr a in a t ra ft le v e l. L e s z c z y n s k i fe e ls A r a p ’s d e s ig n h a s c e rta in ly le d t o a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e g ro u n d a n d f o u n d a tio n b e h a v io u r. F o u n d a t i o n w o rk w a s c a r r ie d o u t b y c o n t r a c t o r I n k o m , w h ic h in s ta lle d th e 17.5 m lo n g , 0 .8 m b y 2 .8 m b a rre tte s th r o u g h s lo ts c u t in th e f o u n d a tio n ra ft. L e s z c z y n s k i w a s c o n c e r n e d t h a t c r e a tin g th e s e slo ts a n d e x p o sin g th e u n d e rs id e o f th e o rig in a l ra ft c o u ld le a d t o a s o fte n in g b e lo w it. A s a p r e c a u t i o n , In k o m in je c te d g r o u t a t lo w p re s s u re b e lo w t h e ra ft a r o u n d th e s lo t lo c a tio n s . I n a d d itio n it p re s tre s s e d th e b a r r e tte s b y b a s e - g r o u tin g th e m , a l th o u g h th is w a s p rim a rily t o m itig a te a g a in s t p o te n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n e r r o r s , r a t h e r th a n a n e c e s s a ry p a r t o f th e d e s ig n . F o u n d a tio n w o rk w a s c o m p le te w h e n N C E I v is ite d th e s ite a n d th e s t r u c tu r e w a s th r e e s to re y s a b o v e g ro u n d . P r o v id e d P o l a n d ’s re sid e n tia l m a rk e t rid e s t h ro u g h th e c re d it c ru n c h , g e n e ra l c o n tr a c to r B esix s h o u ld b e c o m p le tin g t h e p ro je c t b y a u tu m n n e x t y e a r. (New Civil Engineer International, January, 2009) ^ TEXT 7 DOWNTOWN by A drian Greeman B ir m in g h a m ’s la te s t d e v e lo p m e n t in c lu d e s a 4 4 s t o r e y - to w e r w ith a fiv e s to re y b a s e m e n t. B a c h y S o le ta n c h e is ju s t f in is h in g th e fo u n d a tio n s . B irm in g h a m , E n g la n d h a s lo n g h a d a r e p u ta tio n a s a w in d s w e p t c o n c r e t e ju n g le , t h e re s u lt o f r o a d fo c u s e d r e - d e v e lo p m e n t i n th e SUPPLEMENTARY READING 305 1960s. B u t a w ave o f n e w d e v e lo p m e n t is m o d e rn is in g th e c ity c e n tr e w ith frie n d lie r m ix e d u s e s c h e m e s. O n e o f t h e b ig g e st is tr a n s f o r m in g a b le a k s p a c e c lo se to t h e S n o w H ill s ta tio n , t h e c ity ’s s e c o n d c e n tr a l ra ilw a y s ta tio n . F o r y e a rs th e a r e a h a s b e e n m a in ly r o u g h g r o u n d , u s e d fo r c a r p a r k in g a lo n g sid e a m a in r o a d , w ith ra ilw a y lin e s n e a rb y a n d a s s o r te d 1960s c o n c r e te m u ltis to r e y c a r p a rk s. N o w s te e l f r a m e b lo c k s a r e r is in g o n a t h r e e p a r t s ite b e in g d e v e lo p e d b y B a lly m o r e f o r m ix e d u s e , w ith o f f ic e s , r e ta il s p a c e a n d h o t e l flo o r s a b o v e . L a rg e s t w ill b e a d e v e lo p m e n t w ith t w o to w e r s o n th e s q u a r e s ite a t th e e n d , o n e o f th e s e a f u tu r e l a n d m a r k w ith 4 4 f lo o r s , t h e c i t y ’s h ig h e s t b u ild in g . L a n d s c a p e d s p a c e w ill a ls o b e o v e r a fiv e - s to r e y b a s e m e n t c a r p a r k fillin g t h e w h o le 9 6 ,0 0 0 m 2 s p a c e . T o c r e a t e t h i s la r g e v o lu m e a n d to w e r f o u n d a tio n s , g r o u n d w o r k sp e c ia lis t B a c h y S o le ta n c h e h a s b e e n in s ta llin g a d e e p c o n tig u o u s p ile d w a ll a r o u n d t h e s ite th is s u m m e r . I n r e c e n t w e e k s, a s th e la rg e e x c a v a tio n in s id e g o t u n d e r w a y in s id e , it h a s b e e n b a c k o n s ite t o in s ta ll a lin e o f g r o u n d a n c h o r s in t h e w a ll. “ T h e s e a re f o r te m p o r a r y su p p o r t o f th e w all d u r in g t h e b a s e m e n t c o n s tr u c tio n ,” e x p la in s c o n tr a c ts m a n a g e r S te v e M a llin s o n . “ O n c e th e c o n c r e t e d b a s e sla b a n d f lo o rs a r e in p la c e t h e y w ill p r o v id e a ll th e s tr u c tu r a l s u p p o r t n e e d e d a n d t h e a n c h o r s w ill b e c u t th r o u g h .” T h e te n d o n s w ill r e m a in in th e g r o u n d a fte rw a rd s . “ W e a ls o h a d to d o t e n p lu n g e c o lu m n s f o r t h e site a p p r o a c h r a m p w ith in t h e m a in w a l l ,” sa y s M a llin s o n . T h e s e h e f ty s te e l H - s e c t i o n c o lu m n s , s u r r o u n d e d b y p e a g ra v e l in s id e t h e i r p ile c a s in g s , a r e g r a d u a lly b e in g e x p o s e d a g a in a s th e site e x c a v a tio n p r o c e e d s . C o n t r a c t o r P C H a r r in g to n is d o in g t h e e x c a v a tio n a n d b a s e c o n c r e tin g a t p r e s e n t. B u t u n til r e c e n tly B a c h y h a s u n u s u a lly h a d th e s ite t o itse lf. “ W e w e re e ffe c tiv e ly a m a i n c o n t r a c t o r , ” sa y s M a llin s o n , “ in s ta llin g s e c u r ity a n d s ite w e lf a r e , a r r a n g in g sp o il d is p o s a l a n d c o n c r e te d e liv e rie s .” I t w a s a c h a n g e , h e sa y s, n o t h a v in g to in te r le a v e b e tw e e n o th e r w o r k , th o u g h w ith t w o s u p p o r t c r a n e s , tw o B a u e r B G 2 2 p ilin g rigs, s p o il h e a p s , r e in f o r c e m e n t d e liv e rie s a n d s ite a c c o m m o d a tio n t o d e a l w ith , t h e s ite b e c a m e fu ll e n o u g h . A s th e 241 p ile s in th e p e r im e te r w a ll w e re in s ta lle d h e e v e n h a d t o b l o c k o f f tw o o f th r e e s ite e n tr a n c e s , w h ic h m e a n t s o m e c a r e f u l lo g is tic s w e re n e e d e d . 306 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей F o r t h e 2 2 0 m le n g th o f t h e m a in w a ll, p r o je c t d e s ig n c o n s u lta n t W S P h a d o p te d f o r c o n tig u o u s p ile s , “ w h ic h is t h e r ig h t c h o i c e , ” say s M a llin s o n , “b e c a u s e th e g r o u n d is d r y a n d y o u d o n ’t n e e d a n y in te r lo c k in g .” P ile s a r e 7 5 0 m m d ia m e te r . T h e w all w ill h o ld b a c k th e g ro u n d w h ic h c o m p ris e s a fe w m e tre s o f fill, t h e n a 3 - 5 m th i c k s a n d la y e r w h ic h b e c o m e s w e a th e r e d s a n d s to n e f u r th e r d o w n a n d g r a d u a lly m o r e c o m p e te n t r o c k . “ T h e b e d r o c k la y e r slo p e s f r o m 2 m t o 14 m d o w n a c r o s s t h e s ite a n d t h e p ile s m u s t b e u p t o 17.5 m d e e p ,” says site e n g in e e r M a th e w B ro w n , “ th o u g h t h e y a v e ra g e o u t a little le s s .” T o g e t t h r o u g h th is fa irly s o f t g r o u n d s h o u ld b e re la tiv e ly stra ig h tf o r w a r d . B a c h y h o p e d t o w o r k w ith c o n t in u o u s flig h t p ilin g m a in ly , w h ic h is q u ic k a n d e c o n o m ic a l. B u t t h e r e is a lw a y s a b u t. O n th is s ite it w a s o b s ta c le s in t h e g r o u n d , r e m n a n ts o f th e 1960s, in c lu d in g v a r io u s r o a d u n d e r p a s s e s a n d su b w a y s. “ A l o t o f it w a s g r u b b e d o u t in a p r e p a r a to r y c o n t r a c t , ” sa y s B ro w n . “ B u t th e r e w a s s o m e le ft w h e r e it w o u ld h a v e c a u s e d u n d e r m in in g o f t h e h ig h w a y .” T h e o b s ta c le s w e re m a in ly s e v e r a l m e tr e s d o w n a n d u p t o 3 m th ic k . T o g e t th r o u g h m e a n t u s in g t h e f u ll s t r e n g th o f t h e B a u e r rig s in s tr a ig h t b o r in g m o d e — t h e d u a l p u r p o s e rig s c o u ld b e c o n v e r te d f o r s u c h w o rk in a b o u t 2 4 h o u r s a n d th e n d r o v e t h r o u g h th e h a r d m a te n a l w ith tu n g s te n c a r b id e b o r in g h e a d s. “ W e h a d site in v e s tig a tio n d a ta b u t d id f u r th e r p r o b e p ile s a t v a r io u s lo c a tio n s a r o u n d t h e p e r im e te r t o w o rk o u t w h a t w e c o u ld d o w ith t h e C F A a n d w h a t w o u ld ta k e t h e h a r d e r c a s e d b o r e d w o r k ,” sa y s M a llin ­ s o n . I n t h e e n d a b o u t 3 0 % b o r e d p ilin g w a s n e e d e d , s o m e w h a t less th a n B a c h y h a d e s tim a te d , w h ic h m e a n t it c a m e o u t a h e a d . B u t t h e r e is o f te n a n o t h e r b u t. T h e s a n d s to n e a n d s a n d c a u s e d d iffic u ltie s w ith b o t h ty p e s o f p ilin g “ b e c a u s e p o r o u s g r o u n d te n d s t o s u c k t h e m o is tu r e o u t o f t h e c o n c r e t e , ” sa y s M a llin s o n . “ T h a t m a d e it stifie r a n d h a r d e r t o g e t t h e p r e - m a d e r e in f o r c e m e n t c a g e s in a f te r t h e a u g u r w a s w ith d r a w n .” B a c h y s w itc h e d t o a m o r e flu id m ix a n d a h ig h ly d i s c ip lin e d p ile p r o c e d u r e w h e r e c a g e s w e re p o s itio n e d w ith in a m in u te o f th e a u g u r b e in g w ith d r a w n . F o r t h e t e n t o p - d o w n p ile s B a c h y in s ta lle d a b a s ic b o r e d p ile w ith c a s in g a n d t h e n u s e d its s p e c ia l p lu n g e c o lu m n rig to a c h ie v e th e 5 m m a c c u ra c y n e e d e d fo r p o s itio n in g th e I s e c tio n s te e l co lu m n s. SUPPLEMENTARY READING 307 A ste e l f r a m e sittin g o n th e c a s in g s h a d th r e e s e ts o f h y d r a u lic r a m s f o r p r e c is io n a d ju s tm e n t o f th e c e n t r a l ste e l w h ile i t w a s fix e d w ith a r o u n d 5 m o f c o n c r e te a t t h e p ile b a s e . P e a g ra v e l f ills th e c a s in g . T h e 12 w e e k s ’ s c h e d u le m e t, B a c h y r e tir e d f o r a m o n t h w h ile th e e x c a v a tio n b e g a n , r e t u r n i n g i n la te O c t o b e r t o b e g in a n c h o r in g . S o m e 7 0 a n c h o r s g o in , a r o w o f o n e e v e r y t h r e e p ile s . E a c h is 15 m lo n g a n d 178 m m d ia m e t e r , d r iv e n b y a C a s a g r a n d e M 6 a r tic u la tin g rig. F iv e s tr a n d r e in f o r c e m e n t b u n d le s f r o m D iw id a g a r e g r o u te d i n to t h e b o t t o m 6 m o r s o o f t h e a n c h o r w h ic h r u n s a t a 45° in c lin e in to t h e s a n d s to n e . T h a t t o o h a s g o n e t o s c h e d u le a n d t h e s ite is n o w a lm o s t r e a d y f o r t h e m a i n w o r k s b y c o n t r a c t o r A ltiu s . The Snow Hill development as it will look. S n o w H ill d e v e lo p m e n t in c lu d e s 5 6 ,0 0 0 m 2 o f o f f ic e s p a c e , a f iv e - s ta r h o te l a n d 3 3 2 lu x u r y a p a r t m e n t s in a 4 4 - s t o r e y to w e r , fiv e m a jo r n e w p u b lic s p a c e s w h ic h — it is h o p e d — w ill c r e a te a n e w c o r e t o B ir m in g h a m ’s c o m m e r c ia l h e a r t l a n d K ie r G r o u p is t h e m a in c o n t r a c t o r w ith A r u p h e a d in g u p t h e m e c h a n ic a l a n d e le c tr ic a l e n g in e e r in g c o n t r a c t , w h ile A la n B a x te r A s s o c ia te s is t h e s t r u c tu r e s a n d h ig h w a y s c o n s u lta n t. B a lly m o r e P r o p e r tie s is th e d e v e lo p e r o f th e S n o w H ill p r o je c t. I t h a s w o r k e d o n 2 2 c ity c e n tr e p r o je c ts in L iv e r p o o l, L u t o n , B ris to l a n d L o n d o n . I n L o n d o n ’s D o c k la n d s , c u r r e n t s c h e m e s in c lu d e P a n P e n in s u la , O n ta r io T o w e r a n d L e a m o u th P e n in s u la . (New Civil Engineer International, February, 2008) ^TEXT 8 OPEN PLAN SURGERY by Andrew Mylius O p e n in g u p t h e b a s e m e n t o f S t P a n c r a s S ta tio n ’s M id la n d G r a n d H o te l h a s c a lle d f o r r a d ic a l r e - e n g in e e r in g o f its f o u n d a tio n s . G e ttin g m in e r s , t h e i r e x c a v a tio n e q u i p m e n t a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a te r ia ls in to t h e t ig h t s p a c e s b e n e a t h th e M i d l a n d G r a n d H o te l f r o n tin g L o n d o n ’s S t P a n c r a s S ta tio n w a s lik e p la y in g s a r d in e s , sa y s C la ir e C a r r . S h e is o v e r s e e in g a s u r g ic a l o p e r a t i o n t o r e m o v e 308[Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей w alls in th e o ld h o te l b a s e m e n t to c r e a te a d ir e c t lin k b e tw e e n K in g ’s C ro ss S t P a n c ra s U n d e rg ro u n d s ta tio n in fro n t o f th e M id la n d G r a n d H o te l, a n d S t P a n c r a s I n te r n a tio n a l r a ilw a y te r m in u s , w h ic h is im m e d ia te ly b e h in d it. “ E u r o s t a r w ill s ta r t u s in g th e s t a t i o n in N o v e m b e r . W e ’re c r e a tin g e a s y t h r o u g h - a c c e s s f o r p a s s e n g e r s m o v in g b e t w e e n th e L o n d o n U n d e r g r o u n d a n d h ig h s p e e d t r a i n s , ” sa y s C a r r . S h e is s e c tio n m a n a g e r f o r C O R B E R , a j o i n t v e n tu r e b e tw e e n C o s ta in , L a in g O ’R o u r k e , B a c h y S o l e ta n c h e a n d E m c o r R a il, w h ic h is c a r r y in g o u t t h e r e ju v e n a tio n o f S t P a n c r a s s ta tio n . I t is d o in g th e w o r k f o r L o n d o n & C o n t i n e n t a l R a ilw a y s , o w n e r a n d o p e r a t o r o f H ig h S p e e d 1, f o r m e r ly k n o w n a s t h e C h a n n e l T u n n e l R a il L in k . C a r r s ay s t h a t to s u p p o r t th e h o te l’s s e v e n s to re y s o f n e o - g o th ic b ric k w o rk , w a lls in th e b a s e m e n t c h a m b e r s w e re u p to 1.5 m th ic k , c a r r y in g p o in t lo a d s o f 5 0 0 k N . T h e s p a c e w a s d iv id e d in t o fo u r ro o m s , r o u g h ly 7 m s q u a r e , tw o e ith e r s id e o f a 3 m w id e c o r r id o r . D o o r s g iv in g a c c e s s t o th e c o r r id o r , a n d f r o m th e c o r r i d o r in to e a c h o f th e r o o m s , w e re b e tw e e n 8 0 0 m m a n d 9 0 0 m m w id e . “ S p a c e w ith in th e c h a m b e r s w a s lim ite d , a n d t h e d o o r w a y s f o r m e d e x tre m e ly tig h t b o ttle n e c k s o n m o v e m e n ts o f p e o p le a n d m a te r ia ls ,” C a r r says. O p e n in g t h e b a s e m e n t u p t o c r e a te sp a c e f o r fre e -flo w in g p a s s e n g e r m o v e m e n t fo llo w s a 6 0 - p o m t m e th o d s ta te m e n t. “ W e ’ve a r r iv e d a t th e p o in t w h e r e w e ’ve g o t a la rg e o p e n p la n a r e a d o tte d w ith c o lu m n s — w e ’v e c o m e a l o n g w a y ,” C a r r s u m m a r is e s . A lo n g s id e w o r k in g in c o n f in e d s p a c e s , o n e o f C O R B E R ’s k e y c h a lle n g e s w a s to lim it s e ttle m e n t “ O u r w o r k s tr a te g y h a s b e e n g o v e r n e d b y th e r e q u ir e m e n t t o k e e p s e ttle m e n t t o u n d e r 5 m m , ” sa y s C a r r . I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n h a s b e e n in s ta lle d o n th e u p p e r f lo o rs o f th e h o te l to k e e p ta b s o n th e b u ild in g r e s p o n s e t o c h a n g e s b e in g e a r n e d o u t t o its f o o tin g s . W o r k s ta r te d 17 m o n th s a g o w ith th e e x c a v a tio n o f 3 m b y 2 m p its to lo c a te t h e h o te l c o ib e lle d b n c k fo u n d a tio n s . T h e s e w e re fo u n d 6 m d o w n , b e a n n g o n t o L o n d o n C la y . A t e a m o f m in e r s e m p lo y e d b y C o s ta in c a r r ie d o u t th e e x c a v a tio n w o rk , u s in g ti m b e r p r o p s a n d s h o n n g t o s u p p o r t t h e sid e s o f t h e h o le s . “ B e c a u s e o f th e SUPPLEMENTARYREADING 309 c o n d i t i o n s m w h ic h w e ’re w o rk in g , w e ’v e g o n e b a c k to v e ry tr a d itio n a l m e th o d s a n d m a te ria ls ,” C a r r n o te s “ T im b e r ’s fa r e a sie r t o u s e th a n s te e l in tig h t s p a c e s lik e t h i s . ” W i t h fo o tin g le v e ls e s ta b lis h e d , g r o u n d w a s t a k e n d o w n t o th e s a m e le v e l t h r o u g h o u t th e b a s e m e n t a re a . P o w e r e d w h e e lb a rro w s a n d a s m a ll c o n v e y o r w e re u s e d t o r e m o v e s p o il a s t w o m in i-d ig g e rs to ile d aw ay. N e x t, 1 m w id e , 4 .5 m d e e p re in fo rc e d c o n c r e te s tr ip fo u n d a tio n s w e re c a s t e i t h e r s id e o f th e w a lls t o t a k e t e m p o r a r y w o rk s lo a d in g . “W e n e e d e d v e ry s u b s ta n tia l fo u n d a tio n s t o ta k e p r o p p in g fo r c e s w h e n it c a m e to o p e n in g u p t h e w a lls ,” C a rr e x p la in s . O p e n in g u p t h e w a lls in v o lv e d ta k in g c o re s a t h ig h lev el, w h e re th e y m e t th e e d g e s o f v au lts m ak in g u p t h e b a s e m e n t ja c k a rc h c e ilin g . S u b c o n t r a c t o r S h e p le y in s e r te d I - s e c t i o n n e e d le s t h r o u g h th e s e h o le s s u p p o rtin g t h e m o n p ro p p e d I - b e a m s ru n n in g flu s h w ith a n d e i t h e r s id e o f t h e w alls. “ W e w e re stric tly p ro h ib ite d fr o m o p e n in g u p m o re t h a n 2 5 % o f t h e w a ll a t o n c e , s o w e h a d t o in s ta ll t h e n e e d le u s in g a h it o n e , m is s t h r e e , h i t o n e p a t t e r n . O n c e w e ’d b e e n a r o u n d a ll t h e w alls o n c e , w e w e n t b a c k a n d d id th e s a m e a g a in a n d a g a in .” G r o u t w as u s e d t o fill c a v itie s in th e b ric k w o rk o f th e to p m o s t s e c tio n o f w all, s a n d w ic h e d b e tw e e n th e lo n g itu d in a l I-b e a m s. T h e g ro u t a lso flo o d e d th e v o id b e tw e e n th e w all a n d th e w e b a n d i n n e r fla n g e s o f th e I b e a m s , c r e a tin g a c o m p o s ite s t e e l- m a s o n r y - s te e l s a n d w ic h . O n ly w h e n th e g ro u t h a d ach iev ed full design s tre n g th w ere p ro p s su p p o rtin g th e I - b e a m s ja c k e d im p e rc e p tib ly , re lie v in g th e w alls o f lo a d . T h is e n a b le d s lo ts to b e c u t in th e w alls. R e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te s a d d le s w ere c a s t, b rid g in g b e tw e e n th e s tr ip f o u n d a tio n s , o n w h ic h n e w c a s t i r o n c o lu m n s w e re p o s itio n e d . W ith all o f t h e c o lu m n s in p la c e it w a s f in a lly p o s s ib le t o c u t o u t th e r e m a in in g b ric k w o rk . F l o o r lev el b e tw e e n th e s t n p fo u n d a tio n s w as ra is e d t o th e s a m e h e ig h t b y p la c in g m a ss c o n c re te . (New Civil Engineer International, February, 2007) 310 Английскийлзыкдллстудентовстроительныхспециальностей ^ТЕХТ 9 BASEMENT BUILD UP by Jessica Rowson C h ic a g o ’s h o r iz o n is s k y s c r a p e r h e a v e n , b u t s o o n o n e b u ild in g w ill s ta n d h e a d a n d s h o u ld e rs a b o v e t h e rest. Je s s ic a R o w s o n re p o rts f r o m th e W in d y C ity . W h e n b u ilt, t h e 1 5 0 -s to re y C h ic a g o S p ir e w ill b e 6 1 0 m ta ll. C o m p a r e d t o th e p r o p o s e d 5 4 m t a ll F r e e d o m T o w e r o n G r o u n d Z e r o i n N e w Y o r k a n d th e c u r r e n t ta lle s t b u ild in g in t h e U n i t e d S ta te s — th e 1 1 0 -sto re y S e a rs to w e r i n C h ic a g o w h ic h s ta n d s 4 4 2 m ta ll — th i s w ill b e a r e a l s k y s c r a p e r a m o n g t a ll b u ild in g s . I t is d e s ig n e d b y S p a n is h e n g in e e r a r c h ite c t S a tia g o C a la tra v a . N o t o n ly w ill th e h e ig h t m a k e it s t a n d o u t f r o m th e c r o w d , b u t it a ls o h a s a r a th e r u n u s u a l s h a p e a s it tw is ts in to a s p ir a l w h ic h s o a r s sk y w a rd s. T h e f lo o r p la te is b a s e d o n a c ir c le b u t th e e d g e is p in c h e d in to c a n tile v e r p o in ts a t e v e n s p a c e s a r o u n d t h e o u ts id e , g iv in g it th e a p p e a r a n c e o f a w id e t o o t h e d c o g . T h e c a n tile v e r s w ill b e r o ta te d t o g iv e th e fa c a d e th e a p p e a r a n c e o f a v e ry e le g a n t h e lte r sk e lte r. “ It lo o k s c o m p lic a te d , b u t th e r e ’s h ig h r e p e titio n w h ic h m e a n s le ss c o s t , ” sa y s D . M c L e a n v ic e p r e s id e n t o f th e S p ir e ’s s t r u c tu r a l c o n s u lta n t T h o r n t o n T o m a s e tti. “ T h e [ c o n c r e te ] c o r e r e m a in s in th e s a m e p o s itio n , b u t th e f lo o r p la te s a p p e a r t o s lo w ly r o ta te in p la n w ith e a c h c h a n g e in f lo o r e le v a tio n . H o w e v e r th e c o lu m n s a n d t h e in n e r flo o r p la te s a r e r e p e a te d a t e a c h le v e l a n d t h e e d g e s o f th e f lo o r sla b r o ta te . ” A ll g r e a t th in g s m u s t s ta r t s o m e w h e r e a n d th i s p r o je c t b e g in s w ith s o m e h e a v y d u ty g r o u n d w o rk . T w e n ty , 3 m d ia m e te r r o c k c a is s o n p ile s w ill s u p p o r t th e b u ild in g c e n tr a l c ir c u l a r c o r e a n d th e r e a r e se v e n o u t e r c o lu m n s a t g r o u n d le v e l w ith a f u r th e r p a ir o f th e 3 m d ia m e te r r o c k c a is s o n s b e n e a t h e a c h o f th e se . T h e r o c k c a is s o n p ile s a re la rg e d ia m e te r c o n c r e te p ile s in s ta lle d w ith a p e r m a n e n t c a s in g ty p ic a lly u s e d w h e n v e ry h ig h l o a d s n e e d t o b e s u p p o r te d . T h e s e h u g e p ile s p a s s t h r o u g h th e e ig h t- s to r e y b a s e m e n t a n d s o c k e t in to t h e b e d r o c k t o a n a v e ra g e d e p t h o f 3 m . W o rk e rs h a v e a lre a d y in s ta lle d all o f th e 3 m c a is s o n p ile s a s w ell as SUPPLEMENTARY READING 311 s m a lle r in te r m e d ia te b e ll o r u n d e r - r e a m e d p ile s . T h e s e u n d e r re a m e d p ile s s u p p o r t th e c o l u m n s t h a t w ill in t u r n s u p p o r t flo o r sla b s in th e e ig h t- s to r e y b a s e m e n t. T h e r e a re t w o ty p e s o f b a s e m e n t c o l u m n , b o t h a r e f o r m e d b y d r iv in g 2 5 m lo n g , 9 1 0 m m d i a m e t e r t u b u l a r c a s in g s in t o t h e g r o u n d . T h e b o t t o m o f th e s e c a s in g s f o r m s p ile s b e lo w lo w e s t b a s e m e n t slab . M o s t a re filled w ith re in fo rc e d c o n c r e te u p t o g r o u n d le v e l. W h e re th e lo a d s a re g re a te s t t h e c a s in g s a re o n ly fille d w ith r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e u p t o b a s e m e n t s la b le v e l. S t e e l d r o p - i n c o lu m n s a re t h e n p la c e d o n t o p o f t h e m t o f o r m s u p p o r ts f o r th e b a s e m e n t flo o rs . T h e c a s in g s a re l a t e r r e m o v e d b e f o r e b a s e m e n t e x c a v a tio n w o rk b e g in s . “ T o c o n s t r u c t t h e s te e l d r o p - i n c o lu m n s w e t e r m in a te t h e c o n c r e te c a is s o n a t th e b o t t o m b a s e m e n t lev el a n d le a v e a n e m p ty s h a f t,” say s M c L e a n . A s te e l c o l u m n is h u n g in t o t h e s h a f t j u s t a b o v e t h e in s ta lle d c a is s o n . T h e b a s e p la te a r e a o f t h e s te e l c o l u m n is c o n c r e t e d in p la c e a n d le ft to c u r e . L a t e r t h e s h a ft is fille d w ith s a n d o r w e a k slu rry t o p r e v e n t th e c la y c o lla p s in g w h e n th e s te e l c a s in g is r e m o v e d .” It is im p o r ta n t t o p r e v e n t t h e g r o u n d a r o u n d t h e s te e l c o lu m n s c o lla p s in g a f te r th e c a s in g s a re r e m o v e d , b e c a u s e t h e r e is a ris k t h a t u n d e r g r o u n d v o id s c o u ld m a k e th e a re a s a r o u n d th e c o lu m n s d a n g e ro u s t o w o rk in. T h e b a s e m e n t w ill b e c o n s t r u c t e d t o p d o w n f r o m th e g r o u n d flo o r. T h e f in is h e d g ro u n d f lo o r sla b w ill b r a c e th e w a lls. T h e o u trig g e rs u s u a lly r u n th r o u g h t h e c o r e w alls le a v in g s p a c e fo r lifts, s ta irs a n d se rv ic e s. B u t t h e S p ir e ’s c i r c u la r s h a p e a n d c i r c u la r c o re m e a n t th a t th e d e s ig n e rs h a d t o fin d a d iffe re n t s o lu tio n . “ N o rm a lly c o r e s a re r e c t a n g u la r a n d t h e m a in s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n ts c a n b e in s ta lle d th r o u g h t h e c o r e , ” say s M c L e a n . “ W ith a c ir c u l a r c o re o n e c a n n o t d o t h a t as th e d ia g o n a l e le m e n ts in te r s e c t a t t h e c o re c e n tre m ak in g it v ery d ifficu lt to fit a n y th in g in t h e tria n g u la r s p a c e s .” “ W e d e c id e d o n a rin g s y s te m a r o u n d th e c o r e w a lls c o n n e c te d a t tw o f lo o r le v e ls, w h ic h w o u ld n o t in te r f e r e w ith t h e i n n e r c o re la y o u t. T h e rin g e le m e n ts a re h o riz o n ta l s te e l tru s s e s w h ic h e n c irc le th e c o r e w a ll.” I n a d d i t i o n , it w a s d e c id e d t o i n c lu d e th e o u t e r c o l u m n tr a n s f e r s w ith in t h e s e o u tr ig g e r s y s te m s . T h e s e o u tr ig g e r / t r a n s f e r le v e ls w e re s itu a te d a t le v e ls 35 t o 4 0 , 7 2 t o 7 4 ,1 0 9 to 111 a n d 142 t o 144 a n d d e s ig n a te d a s s p a c e f o r t h e p l a n t ro o m s . 312 [ а н гл и й с к и й я з ы к дляс т у д е н т о в с т р о и те л ь н ы х с п е ц и а л ь н о с те й T h e b u ild in g flo o r s a r e f r a m e d in c o m p o s ite s te e l. “ W e n e e d e d c o n c r e te f o r a r o b u s t c o r e , b u t a n a ll c o n c r e te c o n s tr u c tio n w o u ld ha v e re su lte d i n v e ry larg e c o lu m n s in t h e lo w e r p a r t o f th e b u ild in g ,” sa y s M c L e a n . “ W ith s te e l w e c a n u s e s m a lle r c o l u m n s .” M c L e a n s a y s t h e o n e v e ry i m p o r t a n t issu e in c o m p o s ite c o n s tr u c tio n is t h e d if f e r e n tia l m o v e m e n t b e tw e e n th e c o n c r e t e c o r e a n d t h e ste e l c o lu m n s . C o n c r e te s h r in k s a n d c r e e p s o v e r tim e w h e r e a s s te e l s h o r te n s u n d e r l o a d in g , b u t a t a d if f e r e n t r a te . T h is is n o t s u c h a p r o b le m w ith lo w ris e b u ild in g s o r b u ild in g s w h ic h a r e a ll s te e l or a ll c o n c r e te , a s th e c o lu m n s a n d c o r e s s h r in k a t t h e s a m e r a te . T h e c o r e o f th e S p ire is b e in g c o n s tr u c te d a b o v e its f in a l e le v a tio n s o t h a t t h e r e is a slig h t fa ll in th e le v e l o f t h e sla b f r o m t h e c o r e o u tw a r d s . A s th e c o n c r e t e c o r e s h r in k s , t h e f lo o r le v e l s h o u ld a p p r o a c h a f la t s u rfa c e T h e m a in b a s e m e n t w o rk h a s y e t t o s ta r t b u t te n d e r s f o r a g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r h a v e b e e n in v ite d . W h e n o n e is c h o s e n t h e S p ire w ill r e a lly s ta r t t o m o to r . (New Civil Engineer International, November, 2008) ^ TEXT 10 BIRD'S NEST SUPERSTRUCTURE by Andrew Mylius A s it n e a r s c o m p l e t i o n C h i n a ’s b i r d ’s n e s t O ly m p ic s ta d iu m is s h o u tin g f o r a tte n tio n . B e ijin g ’s a r c h ite c tu r a lly fla m b o y a n t O ly m p ic s t a d i u m is n o t u n iv e rs a lly a d m ir e d . “ T h e s ta d iu m b i r d ’s n e s t m o t i f is a n in s u lt t o b i r d s ,” s p lu tte r e d G e r m a n s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r in g lu m in a r y J o rg S c h la ic h a t a s y m p o s iu m in B e ijin g la s t m o n th , o ig a n is e d b y th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c ia tio n f o r S h e ll & S p a tia l S tr u c tu r e s . “ I t u s e s h u g e q u a n titie s o f s t e e l ,” S c h la ic h c o m p la in e d , “ fa r m o r e t h a n n e c e s s a r y t o e n c lo s e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 s e a ts. I t is a g ro ssly in e f f ic ie n t s t r u c t u r e .” W a r m in g t o h is th e m e , S c h la ic h a d v ise d : “ G o o d e n g i n e e r i n g s h o u l d b e a b o u t s o lv in g a p r o b l e m a s e c o n o m ic a lly as p o ssib le , u sin g th e le a st p o ssib le m a te ria ls. I t s h o u ld n e v e r b e s u b ju g a te d to a r t w h a te v e r a r t is .” T h a t is a d e b a te , o f c o u r s e , th a t S c h la ic h s h o u ld h a v e h a d w ith c lie n t f o r t h e s ta d iu m , SUPPLEMENTARY READING 313 th e B e ijin g O rg a n is in g C o m m i t t e e f o r th e 2 0 0 8 O ly m p ic G a m e s ( B O C O G ) , b e fo re it d e c id e d t o b u ild th e s tr u c tu r e n o w n e a n n g c o m p le tio n . T h e s ta d iu m h a s c o n s u m e d a ja w d ro p p in g 4 5 , 0 0 0 1 o f s te e l b u t to s tu n n in g v isu a l e ffe c t. W e ld in g o f th e fin a l s tru c tu ra l m e m b e rs is ta k in g p la c e ; th e p re c a st c o n c r e te s u p p o r ts f o r th e s e a tin g b o w l h a v e b e e n in s ta lle d , w ith s e a tin g a n d m e c h a n i c a l / e l e c t r i c a l fit o u t f o llo w in g c lo s e b e h in d . B e ijin g ’s O ly m p ic s ta d iu m is d u e t o o p e n fo r b u s in e s s th is tim e n e x t y e a r. Q u e s tio n s o f “ g o o d e n g in e e r in g ” a s id e , d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d iu m h a v e b e e n r e m a r k a b le c h a lle n g e s . C o n s u lta n t A ru p h a d th e ta s k o f t u r n in g a n a r c h ite c tu ra l c o n c e p t b y S w iss a r c h ite c t H e rz o g & D e M e u r o n in to s o m e th in g b u ild a b le . “ H e rz o g & D e M e u r o n p u t a lo t o f e ffo rt in t o m a k in g th e s t r u c tu r e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l , ” s a id h e a d o f A r u p S p o r t J a y P a m s h in 2004. “ C o lu m n s a re sk e w e d o ff th e v e rtic a l. T h e r e ’s n o t a c o n c o u rs e w ith a s tr a ig h t e d g e . T h e w h o le e ffo rt h a s c o n c e n tr a te d o n c re a tin g a n e x c itin g s p a c e .” T h e s t a d iu m m e a s u re s 2 3 0 m w id e b y 3 3 0 m lo n g a n d 55 m h ig h . S tru c tu ra lly it is c o m p o s e d o f tw o in d e p e n d e n t p a r ts — t h e b o w l, w h ic h is a fa irly c o n v e n tio n a l p re c a s t r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e te s t r u c tu r e , a n d t h e s te e l e x t e r io r fa c a d e a n d ro o f. T h e r o o f h a s a “ P r i n g le - lik e ” g e o m e tr y , d e n v e d b y ta k in g a s m a ll p a t c h f r o m th e in s id e fa c e o f a v a s t t o r o id . A t its e d g e s , th e r o o f flo w s in to s m o o t h c o m e r s , c r e a tin g a s e a m le s s tr a n s i t i o n in to t h e f a c a d e , w h ic h s lo p e s in w a rd s to w a r d s its b a s e a t 14° f r o m t h e v e rtic a l. H e r z o g & D e M e u r o n s k e tc h e d t h e fa c a d e a n d r o o f a s a r a n d o m s c r ib b le , f r o m w h i c h A r u p h a d t o e s t a b l i s h a c l e a r s tr u c tu r a l o rd e r. T h is w a s a c h ie v e d b y d is g u is in g p r im a r y s tr u c tu r a l m e m b e r s a m id a w e b o f s e c o n d a r y s te e lw o rk . A ll m e m b e r s s h a r e th e s a m e s e c tio n o f 1.5 m 2. T h is h a s b e e n s o e ffe c tiv e t h a t is d iffic u lt t o se e t h a t t h e r e is a s tru c tu ra l s y s te m t h a t h a s b e e n re p e a te d a r o u n d th e s ta d iu m p e rim e te r. R o o f a n d fa c a d e a re in te r c o n n e c te d . T h e s ta d iu m p e rfo rm s like a c o lle c tio n o f g ia n t p o r ta l fra m e s . T w e n ty - f o u r p e r im e te r c o lu m n s c o n s is t o f tw o o u t e r c h o r d s a n d a sin g le i n n e r c h o r d — a ll p rim a r y m e m b e rs . T h e s e ris e f r o m a s in g le p o i n t , d iv e rg in g a s th e y g o a n d w ra p a r o u n d t h e c o m e r b e tw e e n fa c a d e a n d r o o f t o c o n tin u e a c ro s s t h e ro o f. A t t h e c e n t r e o f th e r o o f th e r e is a n e ll i p t i c a l o p e n in g 314|_Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей r in g e d b y а 10 m d e e p tru s s . E a c h p r im a r y m e m b e r s tr ik e s a t a n g e n t o f f th e e llip s e a n d , o n r e a c h in g th e f a r s id e o f th e ro o f, w r a p s a r o u n d th e c o m e r , r e tu r n in g t o th e g r o u n d v ia a n o t h e r c o lu m n . S e c o n d a r y ste e lw o r k p ro v id e s t n a n g u l a t i o n b e tw e e n th e m a in s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n ts . S ta ir s th r e a d e d b e tw e e n th e in n e r a n d o u t e r c h o r d s o f th e c o lu m n s p r o v id e f u r th e r b r a c in g u p t o s ix th - f lo o r le v e l. A r u p d ir e c to r M ic h a e l K w o k sa y s t h a t in p r im a r y m e m b e r s s u b je c te d t o th e h ig h e s t l o a d s s te e l th ic k n e s s is u p t o 100 m m . C h in e s e m a in c o n tr a c to r s U rb a n C o n s tr u c tio n a n d C itic s u b c o n tr a c te d fa b ric a tio n o f th e c o m p le x c u rv e d b o x s e c tio n s m a k in g u p t h e s ta d iu m m u ltip le tr u s s e s to s h i p b u ild e r s in S h a n g h a i a n d Z h e ia n ja n g . “ C h in a h as s o m e o f th e b ig g est sh ip y a rd s in th e w o rld . T h e h u lls o f s h ip s a r e c u r v e d in e v e ry d im e n s io n , s o th i s p r o je c t w a s n o t e s p e c ia lly d if f ic u lt f o r t h e m , ” sa y s K w o k . S e c tio n s w e re tr a n s p o r te d to B eijing b y ro a d i n 12 m t o 15 m le n g th s a n d a sse m b le d in t o l a r g e r u n its w e ig h in g u p t o 6 0 t b e f o r e b e in g lif te d in to p o s itio n . A ll c o n n e c tio n s a r e w e ld e d . K w o k says t h e p a c e o f c o n s tr u c tio n h a s b e e n b liste rin g . G r o u n d b re a k in g w as in D e c e m b e r 2003. B o re d pile f o u n d a tio n s w ere in sta lle d t h r o u g h 2 0 0 4 — e a c h c o lu m n is f o u n d e d o n 30 to 4 0 p ile s o f 8 0 0 m m t o 1 ,000 m m d ia m e te r a n d 20 m to 4 0 m lo n g , d e p e n d in g o n g r o u n d c o n d itio n s . C o lu m n s a re im p la n te d in th e h ig h s tr e n g th c o n c r e te p ile c a p s a n d th e b o x s e c tio n s h a v e b e e n c o n c r e te f ille d to s e v e ra l m e tr e s a b o v e g r o u n d lev el, c r e a tin g m o n o lith ic c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e g r o u n d . T h is is n e c e ssa ry t o h e lp c o p e w ith h o r iz o n ta l fo rc e s f r o m w in d , c ro w d d y n a m ic a n d se ism ic lo a d in g , says K w o k . E re c tio n o f th e first c o lu m n t o o k a b o u t a m o n th , h e re c a lls. “ O n c e th e c o n tra c to rs h a d b e e n th ro u g h th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss o n th e first c o lu m n , t h o u g h , th in g s p ro g re s s e d ra p id ly .” M a ssiv e te m p o r a r y p r o p s w e re re q u ir e d t o s u p p o r t e a c h c o lu m n a n d th e c e n tr a l n n g tru s s . O n ly w h e n a ll o f th e c o lu m n s h a d b e e n p ie c e d to g e th e r w a s th e in te r lin k in g g rid o f p r im a r y m e m b e r s in s ta lle d t o s u p p o r t th e n n g tru s s . “ T h e c o n tr a c to r s w a n te d to w e ld in th e s e c o n d a r y m e m b e r s as t h e y w e n t b e f o r e d e - d r o p p in g . “ W e d id s o m e u i g e n t r e - a n a ly s is a n d r e a c h e d a c o m p r o m is e . S o m e o f th e s e c o n d a ry m e m b e rs w e n t in be fo re d e -p ro p p in g , w h ic h h a p p e n e d SUPPLEMENTARY READING iii! in S e p te m b e r , a n d t h e y ’re p u ttin g in t h e la s t o f th e s e c o n d a r y m e m b e r s n o w .” R e m o v a l o f th e t e m p o r a r y p r o p s w as te le v is e d — it w a s a th r e e d a y o p e r a tio n — c a p tu r in g o n c a m e r a K w o k ’s r e lie f th a t th e r o o f b e h a v e d as e x p e c te d . “ D e f o r m a tio n w a s 2 7 0 m m a t th e c e n t r e o f th e r o o f , m o r e o r le ss a s w e ’d p r e d i c t e d . ” T o c o p e w ith t h e stre sse s r e su ltin g f r o m t h e d e f le c tio n , s e c o n d a r y m e m b e r s ’ p la te t h ic k n e s s w a s in c re a s e d lo c a lly a n d d ia p h r a g m s w e re a d d e d t o b r a c e t h e m i n t e r n a l l y . K w o k a d m i t s t h a t C h i n a ’s c o n s tr u c tio n b o o m m e a n t t h a t s te e l a n d sk ille d f a b r ic a to r s w e re in e q u a lly s h o r t s u p p ly a t tim e s . T h in g s w e re v e r y ti g h t in te r m s o f d e liv e ry a g a in s t s c h e d u le a t tim e s . T h a t ’s h a d s o m e im p a c t o n c o s t b u t t h e p r o j e c t ’s s till w ith in its Y u a n 3 .2 b n ($ 4 0 8 4 M ) b u d g e t .” (New Civil Engineer International, January, 2007) ^TEXT 11 CASTLES IN THE SK Y: HOW NEW YORK CITY'S COLOSSAL SKYSCRAPERS WERE CONSTRUCTED H ig h a b o v e t h e stre e ts o f M a n h a tta n , t h e t e a m s o f riv e te rs w o rk e d t o a s e t r o u tin e . A s a n e n o r m o u s c r a n e h o is te d e a c h ste e l b e a m in to p la c e o n t h e g ro w in g E m p ir e S ta te B u ild in g , a w o r k m a n c a lle d th e “ h e a te r ” w a r m e d e a c h n v e t in a p o r ta b le fu r n a c e u n til it g lo w e d c h e r r y - r e d , r e m o v e d it w ith to n g s a n d to s s e d it t o a “ c a t c h e r ” , p e r c h e d p r e c a r io u s ly o n th e v e ry e d g e o f n o th in g . U s u a lly h e c a u g h t i t in h is “ c a t c h in g c a n ” , b u t s o m e tim e s h e m is s e d . U s in g to n g s , t h e c a t c h e r k n o c k e d o f f th e c in d e r s a n d l o d g e d th e riv e t in th e p r e p a r e d h o le . A n o t h e r w o r k m a te h e ld it f ir m ly w ith t h e a id o f a h e a v y s te e l b a r , w h ile a t h i r d s m a s h e d t h e r iv e t i n t o p la c e w ith a c o m p re s s e d a ir h a m m e r. I t t o o k 6 0 0 0 0 t o n s o f s te e l t o b u ild t h e E m p ir e S ta te . T h e b e a m s a n d g ir d e r s w e r e c a s t in P itts b u r g h , a n d w ith in a d a y o r tw o o f b e in g m a d e , e a c h n u m b e r e d p ie c e h a d b e e n t r a n s p o r t e d t o M a n h a t t a n , h o is te d i n t o p o s itio n a n d r iv e te d in t o p la c e . T h e r e w a s l ittle s to r a g e s p a c e a v a ila b le o n s ite , s o e la b o r a te c h a r t s a n d tim e ta b le s w e re u s e d t o m o n ito r p ro g re ss a n d t o e n s u r e th a t de liv e rie s k e p t p r e c is e p a c e w ith th e e r e c to r s ’ a n d r iv e te r s ’ s c h e d u le s . 316 [ Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей Careful organisation builds a giant. T h e c h a r ts liste d e v e ry lo rry d u e t o a r r iv e , w h a t it w o u ld c a rry , w h o w o u ld b e r e s p o n s ib le f o r it a n d w h e r e it o u g h t t o g o . E a c h b e a m w a s h o is te d b y c r a n e to th e a p p r o p r ia te flo o r, t h e n tra n s p o r te d to w h e r e v e r it w a s r e q u ir e d o n a m in ia tu r e ra ilw a y s y s te m . T h is m e th o d ic a l a p p r o a c h w o r k e d e x c e p tio n a lly w e ll a n d o n o c c a s io n s th e b u ild in g ro se b y m o r e t h a n a s to r e y in a sin g le d a y . T h e E m p ir e S ta te 102 s to re y s w e re f in is h e d in r e c o r d tim e . It t o o k j u s t six m o n th s t o c o m p le te th e 381 m b u ild in g in s te a d o f th e a n tic ip a te d 18 m o n th s, fe a t th a t set n e w s ta n d a rd s o f efficiency f o r th e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u stry . B u t it w as 1931, in th e e a rly y e a rs o f th e G r e a t D e p re ssio n , a n d m u c h o f t h e sp a c e r e m a in e d u n le t. T h e b u ild in g w as d u b b e d “ T h e E m p ire S ta te B u ild in g ” . I t h a d c o s t $ 2 4 m illio n t o c o n s tr u c t, w h ic h w a s c h e a p a t th e tim e , b u t f o r th e first fe w y e a rs a m a jo r so u rc e o f in c o m e u s e d b y t h e d e v e lo p e r t o p a y p r o p e r ty ta x e s w a s tic k e t sales f o r th e o b se rv a to rie s o n th e 8 6 th a n d 1 0 2 n d floors. F r o m th e to p o n a c le a r d a y , it is p o ssib le t o see 80 k m aw ay. A skyscraper made o f steel. T h e s te e l s k e le to n o f t h e r iv e te d s tr u c tu r e m e a n s t h a t it is im m e n s e ly str o n g — th e b u ild in g sw ays less th a n 6 m m o n t h e 8 5 th f lo o r in a s tr o n g w in d . I n J u ly 1945 a n o f f - c o u r s e U S A ir F o r c e b o m b e r , tr a v e llin g a t a s p e e d o f 4 0 0 k m / h in fo g a n d r a in , c r a s h e d in to th e 7 8 th a n d 7 9 th flo o rs. T h e th r e e m a n c re w a n d 11 p e o p le in t h e b u ild in g w e re k ille d , b u t th e s tr u c tu r e s u f f e r e d n o p e r m a n e n t d a m a g e . S u rv iv o rs re c a ll t h a t th e b u ild in g s im p ly r o c k e d a c o u p le o f tim e s. M a n h a t t a n ’s d is tin c tiv e sk y lin e s ta r te d t o ta k e s h a p e w h e n ste e l b e g a n t o b e u s e d f o r ta ll b u ild in g s . E a r lie r b u ild in g s h a d b e e n m a d e f r o m a v a n e ty o f m a te r ia ls , in c lu d in g s to n e , b r ic k , w o o d a n d c a s t ir o n B u t a m a s o n r y b u ild in g t a lle r th a n a b o u t te n s to re y s w o u ld h a v e re q u ir e d s u p p o r tin g w a lls so th ic k a t th e b a s e t h a t th e r e w o u ld b e h a r d ly a n y f lo o r s p a c e o n th e g r o u n d f lo o r a n d , b e f o r e lifts w e re in v e n te d , b u ild in g h e ig h t w a s l im ite d t o th e n u m b e r o f s te p s p e o p le w e re p r e p a r e d t o c lim b . O n e o f M a n h a t t a n ’s m o s t s trik in g e a r ly s k y sc ra p e rs, b u ilt b e tw e e n 1901 a n d 1903 w a s F la tir o n b u ild in g . I t o w e s its u n iq u e s h a p e t o t h e n a r r o w tn a n g u l a r s ite it o c c u p ie s a t th e ju n c tio n o f B ro a d w a y a n d 5 th A v e n u e a t 2 3 rd S tre e t. SUPPLEMENTARY READING 317 T w e n ty sto re y s h ig h , its riv e te d s te e l f r a m e is c la d in F r e n c h R e n a is s a n c e -s ty le s to n e w o rk . Taller and taller. T h e F la tiro n m a y a lso h a v e b e e n th e first b u ild in g t o c re a te stra n g e a e r o d y n a m i c e f fe c ts in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s tr e e ts . E v e n to d a y , M a n h a t t a n ’s ta ll b u ild in g s c r e a te u n u s u a l w in d c u r r e n ts , c a u s in g s n o w fla k e s t o flo a t u p w a rd s . B e fo re lo n g , th e F la tir o n w a s d w a rfe d b y o t h e r sk y sc ra p e rs, in c lu d in g th e W o o lw o rlh B u ild in g , c o m p le te d in 1913. T h e a r c h ite c t, C a s s G ilb e r t, c h o s e th e G o t h i c s ty le fo r th e 6 0 - s to r e y to w e r. T h e s t r u c tu r e its e lf w a s m a d e f r o m s te e l a n d t h e e x t e n o r c o m p le te ly c la d in te r r a c o tta . It c o u ld h o u s e 14000 w o rk e rs , s e rv ic e d b y 19 lifts a n d 2 8 0 0 t e le p h o n e s — a n a s to n is h in g n u m b e r f o r th e tim e . W h e n th e b u ild in g w a s f in is h e d it w o n i m m e d ia te p r a is e f ro m th e p u b lic — b u t s o m e a r c h i t e c t u r a l p u r is ts w e re a g h a s t, t h e i r se n s ib ilitie s o f f e n d e d b y G i l b e r t ’s u s e o f G o t h i c d e ta il p u r e ly fo r d e c o r a tiv e e ffe c t, r a t h e r t h a n fo r s t r u c tu r a l p u rp o s e s . T h is w as c o n t r a r y t o th e m o d e r n i s t s tr ic tu r e t h a t “ f o r m s h o u l d f o llo w fu n c tio n ” . (Reader’s Digest: How Was It Done 9 The Story o f Human Ingenuity Through the Ages, 2000) ^ TEXT 12 HONG KONG — BASTION OF BAMBOO SCAFFOLDING by M uthukaruppan Ram anathan H o n g K o n g ’s s k y lin e is d o m in a te d b y s o m e o f th e w o r ld 's ta lle s t b u ild in g s . N e v e rth e le s s , t h e c ity still u s e s b a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g fo r m u c h o f its c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k — a t r a d i t i o n a l sk ill p a s s e d d o w n o v e r 5 0 0 0 y e a rs . B a m b o o is s u s ta in a b le , lig h tw e ig h t a n d c h e a p a n d , a s lo n g a s it r e m a in s fa irly d r y , a g o o d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a te r ia l w ith s ig n ific a n t m e c h a n ic a l p r o p e r tie s . R e s e a r c h e r s , e n g in e e r s , e n v iro n m e n ta lis ts a n d b u r e a u c r a ts h a v e ta k e n a n in c re a s in g in te re s t in t h e c r a f t, s u c h t h a t r e g u la tio n s a n d p r a c tic e c o n t i n u e t o b e im p ro v e d a n d re fin e d . H o w e v e r, t o a lle v ia te re m a in in g d e s ig n a n d s a fe ty c o n c e r n s a s tr u c tu r a l d e s ig n c o d e is n e e d e d . 318I Английскийлзыкдлистудентовстроительныхспециальностей H o n g K o n g c o n tin u e s its lo n g -s ta n d in g tra d itio n o f u sin g b a m b o o sc a ffo ld in g f o r n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n , r e n o v a tio n , r e p a ir w o r k a n d s ig n a g e . T h e c ity s ta n d s a lo n e f r o m th e re s t o f th e w o r ld in r e c o g n iz in g th e s u s ta in a b ility o f b a m b o o o v e r ste e l a n d a lu m in iu m a n d h a s p ro g re ssiv e ly ra is e d tr a in in g a n d sa fe ty s ta n d a r d s o f b a m b o o sc a ffo ld e rs. B a m b o o sc a ffo ld in g h a d p re v io u s ly b e e n u s e d in m a n y p a r ts o f s o u th e a s t A s ia a n d m a in la n d C h i n a b u t h a s m o s tly n o w b e e n re p la c e d b y m e ta l sc a ffo ld in g . E x c e p t, t h a t is, in H o n g K o n g , h o m e to five o f th e w o rld ’s 25 ta lle st b u ild in g s. Its b a m b o o s caffo ld ers r e m a in u n p e r tu r b e d b y th e e v e r - in c r e a s in g h e ig h ts a t w h ic h th e y w e a v e th e i r b a m b o o w eb s. Working with giant grass. A c c o r d in g t o C h in e s e le g e n d th e c r a f t d a te s b a c k 5 0 0 0 y e a rs, w h e n Y a u C h a o - S h i, a m y th o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r w h o s e b i r th d a y is still c e le b ra te d , ta u g h t his p e o p le h o w to c o n s tr u c t n e s t-lik e b a m b o o s h e lte r s in tr e e s . B a m b o o g ro w s u p to 3 0 m ta ll. I t r e a c h e s its fu ll h e ig h t i n o n e y e a r a n d p e r s is ts f o r s e v e r a l y e a rs w ith o u t g r o w in g t a lle r o r w id e r , m a k in g it t e c h n ic a lly a g ra s s r a t h e r t h a n a tr e e . I t is n e v e r th e le s s t h e w o r ld ’s fa s te s t g r o w in g w o o d y p l a n t a n d , a s s u c h , is p a r tic u la r ly u s e fu l f o r s ta b ilis in g n v e ib a n k s a n d p r e v e n tin g slo p e e ro s io n . B a m b o o s te m s c a n b e h a rv e s te d a fte r th r e e y e a rs a n d a re se lf-re n e w in g , w ith n e w s h o o ts p r o d u c e d f ro m t h e ro o ts w ith o u t r e p la n tin g . T h e c i r c u l a r h o llo w s te m s m a k e lig h t a n d , w h e n s e a s o n e d , t o u g h c o n s tr u c tio n p o le s t h a t c a n b e u s e d w ith o u t fu r th e r p r o c e s s in g o r f in is h in g . S o m e 1 2 5 0 s p e c ie s a n d 150 tr a d i t i o n a l a p p lic a tio n s h a v e b e e n id e n tif ie d f o r b a m b o o . M illio n s o f p e o p le liv e in h o u s e s m a d e o f b a m b o o in p a r ts o f c e n tr a l a n d n o r th A m e r ic a a n d A sia. I t p ro v id e s f lo o r d e c k in g , w a ll p a n e ls , ra f te r s , c e ilin g s , ro o f s , d o o r s a n d w in d o w s . B a m b o o is a ls o u s e d f o r b u ild in g f e n c e s a n d lig h t tr a ffic b n d g e s in s o u th A sia. T r a c e s o f b a m b o o sc a ffo ld in g a r e still s e e n in s o u th C h in a , b u t in H o n g K o n g it c o n tin u e s t o b e e x te n siv e ly u s e d , r e s e a r c h e d a n d im p ro v e d . T h e tr a d i t i o n a l a r t o f b a m b o o s c a f f o ld in g h a s b e e n p a s s e d o n f r o m o n e g e n e r a tio n t o t h e n e x t w ith little w r itte n in f o r m a tio n . H o w e v e r , w ith in c r e a s in g in te r e s t f r o m t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y , e d u c a t i o n a l i n s titu tio n s , s ta tu to r y d e p a r t m e n t s a n d p r o m o te r s o f SUPPLEMENTARY READING J 319 s u s ta in a b le re s o u rc e s , th e r e h a s b e e n a s te a d y g ro w th in t h e n u m b e r o f w r itte n re g u la tio n s , g u id e lin e s , c o d e s , c o n f e r e n c e s a n d p u b lic a ­ ti o n s o n t h e s u b je c t. T h e fo c u s in H o n g K o n g is o n t h e lo c a lly a v a ila b le b a m b o o ty p e s , n a m e ly k a o j u e a n d m a o j u e , t h e n o m in a l e x te r n a l d ia m e t e r s o f w h ic h a t b a s e a r e 4 0 m m a n d 75 m m re sp e c tiv e ly . T h e C o d e o f P r a c tic e f o r S c a ffo ld in g S a fe ly w a s first p u b lis h e d in 1995 b y t h e H o n g K o n g L a b o u r D e p a r tm e n t. T h e c o d e p ro v id e d p r a c tic a l g u id e lin e s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f b o th b a m b o o a n d m e ta l s c a ffo ld s . It g a v e b r o a d m a te r ia l s p e c if ic a tio n a n d m i n im u m r e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e c o n fig u ra tio n o f c o m m o n ly u s e d s c a ffo ld ty p e s . L o a d s o n w o rk in g p l a tf o r m s s u p p o r t e d b y th e s c a f f o ld s , h o w e v e r , w e re p r o v i d e d o n ly f o r m e t a l s c a f f o ld s . A s e p a ra te c o d e fo r b a m b o o s , e n title d C o d e o f P ra c tic e fo r B a m b o o S c a ffo ld in g S a fe ty , w a s p u b lis h e d in 2 0 0 1 . T h is in c l u d e d th e m i n i m u m im p o s e d lo a d s o n w o rk in g p la tf o r m s a n d a p e r f o r m a n c e sp e c ific a tio n . I n 2 0 0 6 , th e H o n g K o n g B u ild in g s D e p a r t m e n t p u b lis h e d G u id e lin e s o n th e d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b a m b o o sc a ffo ld s t o s u p p le m e n t t h e L a b o u r D e p a r t m e n t c o d e . T h e g u id e lin e s p ro v id e r e c o m m e n d e d p r a c tic e f o r th e d e s ig n , e r e c t i o n , m a in te n a n c e a n d d is m a n tlin g o f b a m b o o sc a ffo ld s. I f s c a ffo ld la y o u ts n e e d t o d e v ia te f r o m t h e g u id e lin e s , th e B u ild in g s D e p a r t m e n t r e c o m m e n d s a p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d d e s ig n b y a c o rp o r a te civ il o r s tru c tu ra l m e m b e r o f t h e H o n g K o n g I n s titu tio n o f E n g in e e rs . A f te r g a u g in g in d u s try r e a c tio n , th e B u ild in g s D e p a r tm e n t w ill c o n s id e r p u b lis h in g a c o d e o f p r a c tic e in th e fu tu re . Forms o f bamboo scaffolding. B a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g is u s e d in its v a rio u s fo rm s a c c o r d in g t o t h e u tility . D o u b le - la y e r e d b a m b o o s c a ffo ld s a r e m o s t c o m m o n ly u s e d in n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a ls o in m a j o r r e n o v a tio n . E x te r n a l w o rk s s u c h a s re n d e r in g , p a in tin g , w a ll t ile s a n d p lu m b in g a r e c a r r i e d o u t f r o m a c o n t i n u o u s w o rk in g p la t f o r m l a id b e tw e e n t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r s c a ffo ld s . T h e i n n e r la y e r is e r e c t e d a t a b o u t 2 0 0 m m fr o m th e b u ild in g e d g e , a n d t h e o u t e r la y e r a t a b o u t 6 0 0 m m f r o m th e i n n e r la y e r. T h e r e a r e m a n y v a r ia tio n s t o f o r m , a r t i c u l a t i o n , ty p e s o f b a m b o o s a n d s p a c in g b a s e d o n s p e c ific s ite r e q u ir e m e n ts a n d t h e c r a f t s m e n ’s tr a i n i n g a n d p r e f e r e n c e . 320 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей F o r t h e o u t e r la y e r, l a r g e - d i a m e t e r (7 5 m m ) m a o j u e p o l e s a r e u s e d a s t h e m a i n v e r tic a l p o s ts s p a c e d a t a b o u t 1 — 3 m c e n t r e s . T h e y re s t o n firm g r o u n d a t g r o u n d le v e l a n d o n s te e l b r a c k e t s s e c u r e ly fix e d t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s o f t h e b u i l d i n g a t h ig h e r lev els. B u ild in g s D e p a r t m e n t g u id e lin e s re q u ire th e s e s te e l b ra c k e ts t o b e p r o v i d e d a t 15 m v e r tic a l i n te r v a ls o r e v e ry f if th flo o r . E a c h p o s t s h o u ld re s t o n o n e s te e l b r a c k e t , a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l s p a c in g b e t w e e n t h e b ra c k e ts s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 1—3 m . S m a l l e r 4 0 m m d i a m e t e r k a o j u e p o le s a r e fix e d a s s ta n d a r d s (u p r ig h ts ) b e t w e e n e a c h p a i r o f m a o j u e p o s ts . T h e p o s ts a n d s t a n d a r d s a r e c o n n e c t e d b y m a o j u e le d g e r s ( h o r i z o n t a l s ) , w i t h a v e r tic a l s p a c in g o f a b o u t 6 0 0 - 7 5 0 m m . T h e s c a f f o ld e r s s it a n d p u t t h e i r le g o v e r t h e le d g e rs a n d fix t h e t i e r a b o v e it. T h e u p r ig h t s ta n d a r d s a n d p o s ts a r e a ls o l a p p e d b y t h e m s ittin g in t h i s p o s itio n . T h e 6 0 0 - 7 5 0 m m g a p s p a c i n g is j u s t c o n v e n i e n t w o r k in g d is ta n c e w h i c h is t h e h e ig h t b e t w e e n t h e s c a f f o ld e r ’s h i p a n d s h o u ld e r . T h i s w a y , t h e jo i n t s a n d m e m b e r s a re l o a d - t e s t e d d u r in g t h e e r e c t i o n s ta g e i t s e l f b y t h e s c a f f o l d e r ’s o w n w e ig h t. C ro s s -b ia c m g is p ro v id e d b y u s in g k a o j u e p o le s in c lin e d a t a n a n g le o f 4 5 - 6 0 ° . F o r t h e i n n e r la y e r , k a o j u e p o le s a r e u s e d f o r m a in p o s ts a n d l e d g e rs ; t h e i n te r m e d ia te s ta n d a r d s a r e g e n e ra lly n o t n e c e s s a ry . T h e m a i n p o s ts o f b o t h la y e r s a r e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e sa m e s e t o f t r i a n g u l a r s te e l b r a c k e ts . S c a f f o ld s a r e t i e d t o b u ild in g s u s in g 6 m m d i a m e t e r h o r i z o n t a l m il d - s t e e l w ire s a t v e r tic a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l s p a c in g s n o t e x c e e d in g 6 .6 m a n d 3 m resp ectiv ely . T h e s e a re re fe rre d to a s “ p u tlo g s ” t h o u g h , u n lik e p u tlo g s in m e ta l s c a ffo ld in g s y s te m s , w h ic h t r a n s m i t v e rtic a l p la tf o r m lo a d s in to t h e b u ild in g w a ll, p u tlo g s in b a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g p r o v id e l a te r a l r e s t r a i n t a n d w i n d r e s is ta n c e . T h e y a r e p r o v i d e d a t c l o s e r s p a c in g h ig h e r u p , w h e r e w in d fo r c e s c a n b e s ig n if ic a n t. W o r k in g p la tf o r m s f o r c a r r y in g o u t e x te r n a l w o rk s a r e n o r m a lly v e r tic a lly s p a c e d a t 2 m . T h e m a x i m u m i m p o s e d lo a d o n w o r k in g p l a t f o r m s v a rie s b e t w e e n 0 —7 5 k P a (v e ry lig h t d u ty ) t o 3 k P a (v e ry h e a v y d u ty ) i n t h e L a b o u r D e p a r t m e n t ’s c o d e . T h e c o d e r e q u i r e s t h a t n o m o r e t h a n tw o w o rk in g p la tf o r m s in t h e f o r m e r c a s e a n d n o m o r e t h a n o n e w o r k in g p la t f o r m in t h e l a t t e r c a s e s h o u l d b e i n u s e i n a n y b a y , t h a t is t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n tw o a d j a c e n t s t a n d a r d s a lo n g SUPPLEMENTARY READING 321 t h e fa c e o f t h e s c a ffo ld . I n t h e d o u b le - la y e r e d s y s te m , k a o j u e tr a n s o m , p o le s s p a n n in g b e tw e e n t h e le d g e rs a re u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e w o rk in g p la tfo rm s , a n d a re t h e re fo re p ro v id e d a t e v e ry p la tfo rm le v e l a n d w ith a m a x im u m h o r iz o n ta l s p a c in g o f a b o u t 1 5 - 2 4 m . S in g le -la y e re d b a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g is g e n e r a lly u s e d t o p ro v id e p r o te c tiv e c o v e r t o r e n o v a tio n w o rk s o n e x is tin g b u ild in g s w h e re w o rk in g p la tf o r m s a re n o t n e c e s s a ry . It is a ls o u s e d fo r s o m e n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n , fo r e x a m p le w h e re e x te r n a l c u r t a i n g la ss w a lls a re d e s ig n e d t o b e in s ta lle d as larg e p a n e ls . S u c h sc a ffo ld s a re a ls o u s e d i n d e m o litio n , w h e r e a ll d e m o litio n w o rk s a re c a r r i e d o u t f ro m in s id e t h e b u i ld in g in c lu d in g r e m o v a l o f e x te r n a l f e a tu re s . It is m a n d a to r y t o f it ta r p a u l i n s h e e ts t o c o n t a i n d e m o l i t i o n d u s t a n d d eb ris, b u t th e s e n e e d to b e re m o v e d d u rin g ty p h o o n s . F ix e d ex te rn a l r a t h e r th a n in te r n a l le d g e rs fa c ilita te th e re m o v a l o f ta r p a u lin s . H o w e v e r, s in g le - la y e r e d s c a ffo ld s a r e le s s sa fe t h a n d o u b le la y e re d s c a ffo ld s a n d u sag e is d is c o u ra g e d . T h e y a re n o t in c lu d e d in e ith e r th e L a b o u r D e p a r t m e n t ’s c o d e o r th e B u ild in g s D e p a r tm e n t g u id e lin e s . F o r m i n o r r e p a i r w o rk s, in c lu d in g e x te r n a l p l u m b in g , a ir - c o n d i t i o n i n g u n it re p la c e m e n ts a n d c o n c r e te o r re n d e r in g re p a ir, tr u s s - o u t b a m b o o scaffo ld s a re c o m m o n ly u sed . T h is is lig h td u ty , s h o r t - d u r a t i o n w o r k a n d s m a l l - d i a m e t e r k a o ju e p o le s a re u s e d . T h e s ta n d a r d s , le d g e rs a n d r a k in g p o le s a re all s u p p o r te d b y tr ia n g u la r s te e l b ra c k e ts , w h ic h in t u r n a r e s e c u r e ly fix e d to th e s tr u c tu r a l e le m e n ts o f th e b u ild in g P u tlo g tie s re s tr a in th e t o p o f th e s ta n d a rd s . B a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g is a ls o u s e d t o e r e c t m a n y o f t h e la rg e c a n tile v e r e d a d v e rtis in g sig n s fre q u e n tly s e e n o v e r C h in e s e s tre e ts I n H o n g K o n g , t h e m a x im u m a llo w e d le n g th to h e ig h t ra tio is 4:3 a n d th e s c a ffo ld s h o u ld b e e r e c te d in a m a n n e r n o t to o b s tr u c t t h e tra ffic flo w b e lo w . S u c h sc a ffo ld s a re u s u a lly s u p p o r te d b y s te e l w ire s o r h a n g - p o le s s e c u re ly fix ed t o th e s t r u c tu r a l e le m e n ts o f th e b u ild in g . T h e lo w e r le v e l is u s u a lly d e c k e d o u t w ith w o o d e n p la n k s t o a c t a s a w o r k in g p la tfo rm . Lashing connections. J o i n t s in b a m b o o c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e a lw a y s b e e n tr ic k y . T h e p o le s a re n e i t h e r p e r f e c tly s tr a ig h t n o r ro u n d , th e y h av e n o d e s a t i r r e g u l a r s p a c i n g s a n d t h e i r t h i c k n e s s v a r ie s . D e s p i t e s u c h Зак 312 '322 I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей lim ita tio n s , p r a c titio n e r s h a v e d e v e lo p e d m a n y c o n n e c t i o n d e ta ils o v e r th e y e a r s . L a s h in g p o le s w ith s o a k e d b a m b o o s t n p s w a s th e p re fe rre d m e th o d fo r a lo n g tim e , b u t th e s tn p s d e c a y e d a n d n e e d e d c o n s t a n t a tte n tio n a n d r e p la c e m e n t. B y th e la te 1 970s, n y lo n s t n p s h a d r e p la c e d b a m b o o s tr ip s . T h e n e w s t n p s m a d e e r e c t i o n fa s te r a n d th e y a ls o la s te d lo n g e r , b u t c o n n e c tio n s still te n d e d t o w e a k e n o v e r tim e d u e to w e a th e n n g . T h is led to H o n g K o n g re se a rc h e rs sp ecify in g e n g in e e re d c o n n e c tio n s th r o u g h e x p e r im e n ta l in v e s tig a tio n . T h e r e c o m m e n d e d v a lu e f o r b a s ic c h a r a c te r is tic r e s is ta n c e f o r e a c h la s h in g is 1.1 k N w ith a p a r tia l s a f e ty f a c to r o f 1 .1 -1 .2 5 . T h e n y lo n s t n p s a r e w e ll- s p e c if ie d , w ith a m i n im u m u ltim a te s tr e n g th o f 0 .5 k N , a w id th o f 5.5 — 6 m m a n d a th ic k n e s s o f 0 .8 5 — 1 m m . T h e o v e r la p o f t w o l a s h e d b a m b o o p o le s s h o u ld b e 1 . 5 2 m , a n d t h e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e la s h in g s s h o u ld n o t b e g r e a te r th a n 300 m m . O th e r m a te r ia ls s u c h as p u tlo g s , a n c h o r b o lts a n d ste e l b r a c k e ts a re sp e c ifie d in th e B u ild in g s D e p a r tm e n t g u id e lin e s. T h e e sta b lish e d sp e c ific a tio n s fo r b a m b o o p o le s, h o w e v e r, w e re g iv e n in t h e L a b o u r D e p a r tm e n t’s e a r lie r c o d e s. T h e p o le s s h o u ld b e 3 - 5 y e a r s o ld a n d a ir - d r i e d in v e r tic a l p o s itio n s u n d e r i n d o o r c o n d itio n s f o r a t le a s t 3 m o n th s b e f o r e u s e ; th e y s h o u ld b e fre e f r o m c r a c k s , ir r e g u la r k n o ts a n d w o r m - e a te n sp o ts . D e s p ite b a m b o o a n d la s h in g m a te r ia ls h a v in g b e e n s p e c if ie d , th e e f f o r t o f c o d if y in g th e d e s ig n d a ta is still o n g o in g . Engineering characteristics. O n e o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e s in d e sig n in g b a m b o o s tr u c tu r e s is th e la c k o f str u c tu r a l d esig n d a ta a n d e sta b lis h e d m e c h a n ic a l p r o p e rtie s . B u ild in g c o d e s o v e r th e g lo b e h a v e y e t to e m b r a c e b a m b o o , th o u g h a d r a f t c o d e o n b a m b o o s t r u c tu r a l d e s ig n is u n d e r re v ie w . B a sic m e c h a n ic a l p r o p e r tie s h a v e b e e n d e a lt w ith b y m a n y a u t h o r s b u t, u n lik e tim b e r , b a m b o o p r o p e r tie s d o n o t r e la te t o s p e c ie s b e c a u s e o f t h e d e p e n d e n c y o n o t h e r fa c to r s s u c h a s g e o g r a p h ic a l lo c a tio n a n d ag e . M o r e r e c e n t r e se a rc h o n b a m b o o sc a ffo ld in g c a r r ie d o u t a t H o n g K o n g P o ly te c h n ic U n iv e r s ity w ith t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e I n te r n a t i o n a l N e tw o rk fo r B a m b o o a n d R a tta n h a s th u s c o n c e n tr a te d o n t h e lo cally SUPPLEMENTARY READING 323 a v a ila b le k a o j u e a n d m a o ju e v a rie tie s . T h e s tu d ie s in d ic a te d t h a t d e s p ite la rg e v a ria tio n s in d ia m e te r , w a ll t h ic k n e s s a n d m o is tu re c o n t e n t , re p r e s e n ta tiv e v a lu e s o f m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r tie s c o u ld b e a r r iv e d a t. T w o f a ilu re m o d e s , n a m e ly e n d b e a r in g a n d s p littin g , w e re i d e n tif ie d in c o m p r e s s io n te s ts . E n d - b e a r i n g fa ilu re s w e re m a in ly d u e t o h ig h m o is tu r e c o n t e n t . F o r b e n d i n g te s ts , s p littin g a n d lo c a l c ru s h in g w e re id e n tif ie d a s r e a s o n s fo r fa ilu re B a s e d o n a s y s te m a tic e x p e r im e n ta l i n v e s tig a tio n o n c o l u m n b u c k lin g b e h a v io u r o f b a m b o o m e m b e r s , re s e a r c h e r s f o u n d t h a t lo a d re d u c tio n d u e to c o lu m n b u c k lin g is s ig n ific a n t a n d a c c o rd in g ly d e v e lo p e d a l im it- s ta te d e sig n m e th o d . T w o fa ilu re m o d e s , n a m e ly o v e ra ll b u c k lin g a n d lo c a l b u c k lin g , w e re id e n tifie d r e s p e c tiv e ly in m a o ju e (lo n g c o lu m n -w e t) a n d k a o ju e (s h o rt c o lu m n -w e t) m e m b e rs in m o s t o f t h e ca se s. T h e e n g in e e n n g c h a ra c te n s tic s o f s tru c tu ra l b a m b o o s a re s im ila r t o th o s e o f tim b e r a n d c o d if ic a tio n a lo n g s im ila r lin e s t o t i m b e r s h o u ld b e th e n e x t lo g ic a l s te p . I f t h e H o n g K o n g B u ild in g s D e p a r t m e n t p u b lis h e s a c o d e o f p r a c tic e fo r b a m b o o s c a ffo ld a s it h a s s u g g e s te d , th is w o u ld le a d to p r o m o t i o n a n d w id e r a c c e p ta n c e o f b a m b o o a s a b u ild in g m a te r ia l w o rld w id e . Training and safety. I n t h e p a s t, t h e s k ills re q u ir e d fo r e r e c tin g b a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g w e re ta u g h t b y a m a s te r s c a ffo ld e r th r o u g h a tr a d itio n a l a p p r e n tic e s y s te m t h a t w o u ld la s t f o r 3 y e a rs. H o w e v e r, a p p r e n tic e s c a n n o w p ic k u p t h e sk ill w ith in a y e a r t h r o u g h o n - j o b t r a in in g o r b y a t t e n d i n g a C o n s t r u c t i o n In d u s tr y T r a in in g A u th o r ity tr a in in g c o u rs e . A f te r w o rk in g i n in d u s tr y fo r a t le a s t 4 y e a rs , a s c a ffo ld e r c a n ta k e t h e C I T A t r a d e t e s t , w h ic h c o n s is ts o f a 0 .5 h w r i t t e n e x a m in a tio n fo llo w e d b y a 6 h p r a c tic a l t e s t in w h ic h th e c a n d id a te is re q u ir e d to : - i n s p e c t a n e re c te d sc a ffo ld a n d re c tify t h e d e fe c ts ; - d is m a n tle t h e s c a ffo ld safely ; - r e - e r e c t t h e s c a ffo ld . I n 2 0 0 6 , 26 8 c a n d id a te s a p p lie d fo r t h e te s t a n d 6 2 % p a s s e d . A p a rt fro m th e e x te n t o f w o rk c o m p le te d a n d q u a lity o f w o rk m a n s h ip , c a n d id a te s a re a lso a sse sse d o n th e ir s a fe ty -c o n s c io u s n e s s . 11* 324I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей A ll s c a f f o ld e r s in H o n g K o n g a r e r e q u ir e d t o w e a r s a f e ty h a rn e s s e s , fall a r r e s to r s a n d in d e p e n d e n t life lin e s . S c a ffo ld s m u s t a lso b e in s p e c te d b y a c o m p e te n t p e r s o n — a C I T A tr a d e te s t h o ld e r w ith a t le a s t 10 y e a r s ’ e x p e r ie n c e — e v e r y 2 w e e k s a n d m o r e o f te n d u rin g tr o p ic a l c y c lo n e s a n d s tr o n g m o n s o o n s . T h e m a in c o n t r a c to r ’s f u ll- tim e s u p e rv is o r s h o u ld a ls o in s p e c t th e in te g rity o f th e sc a ffo ld s r e g u la rly a n d r e c o r d fin d in g s in s t ip u la te d fo rm s. D e sp ite th e tr a in in g a n d sk ill o f H o n g K o n g ’s b a m b o o sc a ffo ld e rs a n d th e g o v e r n m e n t’s a s s o c ia te d c o d e a n d g u id e lin e s , s e r io u s a c c id e n ts c o n tin u e t o o c c u r , m o s tly i n tr u s s - o u t b a m b o o sc a ffo ld s T h e o v e ra ll a c c id e n t r a te in H o n g K o n g ’s c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s tr y in th e p a s t fe w y e a rs is a r o u n d 6 0 f o r e v e r y 100 0 w o rk e rs . A to ta l o f 3 8 3 5 a c c id e n t c a s e s w e re r e c o r d e d in 2 0 0 4 , 3 5 4 8 in 2 0 0 5 a n d 3 1 2 9 ( p r o je c te d ) in 2 0 0 6 . T h e n u m b e r s o f fa ta l a c c id e n ts d u r in g t h e s e y e a rs a r e 17, 2 5 a n d 17 re s p e c tiv e ly . R e p a i r a n d m a in te n a n c e p r o je c ts a c c o u n t fo r th e m a jo rity o f th e a c c id e n ts . N e a r ly h a l f o f th e fa ta l a c c id e n ts a r e g r o u p e d u n d e r “ fa ll o f p e r s o n f r o m h e ig h t” in v o lv in g t r u s s - o u t b a m b o o sc a ffo ld s, u n f e n c e d e d g e s , la d d e r s a n d so on. M a n y o f th e a c c id e n ts in tru s s -o u t b a m b o o scaffo ld s h a v e re su lte d fr o m f a ilu re s o f th e s u p p o r t b r a c k e t a n c h o r b o lts . T h e d if f ic u lty in fix in g th e a n c h o r b o lts fro m in s id e th e b u ild in g is c i t e d a s a m a jo r c a u se . I n a d e q u a c y o f se c u re fix tu re s o f life lin e s t o a n c h o r a g e p o in ts h a s a lso b e e n n o te d in m a n y c a se s. I n d u s tr y , in s titu tio n s a n d g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r tm e n ts a r e w o r k in g t o g e t h e r in a d d r e s s in g th e p r o b le m . Metal versus bamboo. U n lik e m e ta l s c a f f o ld p o le s , b a m b o o p o le s d o n o t n e e d o ilin g , p a in tin g o r c o v e r e d s to r a g e . T h e y a r e m u c h lig h te r a n d e a s ie r to h a n d le , le a d in g t o fa s t e r e c tio n : o n e w o r k e r c a n e r e c t 7 5 - 1 0 0 m 2 o f d o u b le - la y e r e d b a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g a d a y , s o m e 6 - 8 tim e s fa s te r th a n f o r a s im ila r m e ta l s c a ffo ld . A ls o , t h e c o s t o f b a m b o o p o le s is o n ly a b o u t 6 % o f t h e c o s t o f s te e l p o le s . B a m b o o sc a ffo ld s a r e g e n e r a lly s p lit in to 15 m t a ll fr a m e s w ith th o s e a b o v e g r o u n d le v e l s u p p o r te d b y s te e l b r a c k e ts fix e d t o th e m a in s tr u c tu r e . T h e h e a v ie r w e ig h t o f m e ta l s c a ffo ld in g m e a n s t h a t v e rtic a l lo a d s a re u su a lly t a k e n a ll th e w a y d o w n to t h e b a s e . T h is is SUPPLEMENTARY READING 325 w o rk a b le fo r m e d iu m - r is e b u ild in g s b u t fo r a m u lti- s to r e y b u ild in g o f, say , 124 m h e ig h t, it is e s tim a te d t h a t s t a n d a r d s w ill b e r e q u ire d i n g r o u p s o f t h r e e a t b a s e w ith d o u b le a t in te r m e d i a t e le v els. I n te r m e d i a t e ste e l b r a c k e ts , i f d e s ig n e d , w o u ld a ls o b e m a s s iv e . In H o n g K o n g , w h e re h ig h - r is e b u ild in g s a r e a n o r m a n d m a n y u r b a n s ite s a re b o u n d e d b y b u s y s tre e ts , s h o p p in g a r c a d e s a n d p e d e s tr ia n b rid g e s , tre b le a n d d o u b le m e ta l s c a ffo ld s w o u ld n o t b e p r a c tic a l B a m b o o a ls o h a s a m u c h lo w e r c a r b o n f o o t p r i n t t h a n m e ta l. F o r H o n g K o n g it is c u ltiv a te d in th e n eig h b o u rin g G u a n g x i p ro v in c e in a b u n d a n c e , a n d t h e n t r a n s p o r te d t o H o n g K o n g a lo n g t h e P e a rl R iv e r s im p ly b y la s h in g t h e p o le s to g e t h e r a n d f lo a tin g th e m d o w n s tre a m . D e p e n d in g o n th e ty p e o f sc a ffo ld in g , b a m b o o p o le s c a n b e re u s e d t h r e e to five tim e s . A city o f old and new. H o n g K o n g is a f o r w a rd -lo o k in g c ity b u t o n e w h ic h a lso v a lu e s its tr a d itio n s a n d c u s to m s . F o r e x a m p le , c e n tu r y - o ld t r a m c a r s p ass slo w ly th r o u g h t h e h e a rt o f t h e c e n tra l d is tric t w h ile s t a t e - o f - th e - a r t m a s s -tra n s it tra in s s p e e d t h ro u g h tu n n e ls b e lo w a n d t r a d itio n a l d im s u m r e s ta u ra n ts sit a lo n g s id e th e la te s t fa s t-fo o d o u tle ts . (New Civil Engineer International, March, 2009) TAPESCRIPTS • TAPESCRIPT 1A BU ILD IN G S: FIRST IMPRESSIONS W h a t m a k e s t h e lo o k o f B ritish to w n s a n d c itie s d is tin c tiv e ? T h e m o s t s tr ik in g f e a tu r e is th e la c k o f b l o c k s o f fla ts P e o p le p r e f e r to live in in d iv id u a l h o u s e s — u n its w ith t h e i r o w n f r o n t d o o r s a n d s o m e tim e s g a rd e n s P e r h a p s th is say s s o m e th in g a b o u t th e n a tio n a l c h a r a c te r ; a lo v e o f p r iv a c y a n d a la c k o f in te r e s t in th e w id e r c o m m u n ity . T h e r e is a p r o v e r b : “ A n E n g lis h m a n ’s h o m e is h is c a s tle ” . W h a te v e r t h e d e e p e r re a s o n s f o r it, th e r e s u lt is t h a t B ritis h to w n s a n d c itie s a r e fu ll o f tw o o r t h r e e - s t o r e y h o u s e s . O n ly in th e 1 9 5 0 s a n d - 6 0 s c o u n c ils s ta r te d b u ild in g t a ll b lo c k s o f f la ts in t h e A m e r ic a n sty le; b u t th e s e h a v e b e e n v e ry u n p o p u la r , a n d th e c h e a p e r o n e s a r e n o w b e in g d e m o lis h e d . A n o th e r d istin c tiv e fe a tu re o f B ritish b u ild in g s is th e u se o f b ric k . S o m e o f th e o ld e s t m o n u m e n ts , lik e H a m p t o n C o u r t P r l a c e o r Q u e e n s ’ C o lle g e , C a m b r id g e , a r e m a d e o f b r ic k . I t r e m a in s t h e fa v o u rite m a te r ia l f o r n e w h o u s e s to d a y . W h ile th e re st o f th e w o r ld p r e f e r s c o n c r e t e , f o r s o m e r e a s o n th e B r itis h ta s te is f o r b r ic k , a t le a s t i n s m a lle r b u ild in g s . • TAPESCRIPT IB SOME TRENDS IN THE HISTORY OF BUILDING H u m a n sh e lte rs w e re a t first v e ry sim p le a n d p e r h a p s la ste d o n ly a fe w d a y s o r m o n th s . O v e r t im e , h o w e v e r , e v e n te m p o r a r y s tr u c tu r e s e v o lv e d in to s u c h h ig h ly r e f in e d fo r m s a s th e ig lo o . G r a d u a lly m o r e d u ra b le stru c tu re s b e g a n to a p p e a r, p a rtic u la rly a f te r TAPESCRIPTS 327 t h e a d v e n t o f a g r ic u ltu r e , w h e n p e o p le b e g a n t o s ta y in o n e p la c e fo r l o n g p e rio d s . T h e firs t s h e lte r s w e re d w e llin g s , b u t la t e r o t h e r f u n c tio n s , s u c h a s fo o d s to ra g e a n d c e re m o n y , w e re h o u s e d in s e p ­ a ra te b u ild in g s . S o m e s tr u c t u r e s b e g a n t o h a v e s y m b o lic a s w e ll as f u n c tio n a l v a lu e , m a rk in g th e b e g in n in g o f t h e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a r c h ite c tu r e a n d b u ild in g . T h e h is to r y o f b u ild in g is m a r k e d b y a n u m b e r o f t r e n d s . O n e is t h e in c r e a s in g d u r a b ility o f t h e m a te r ia ls u s e d . E a r ly b u ild in g m a te r ia ls w e re p e r is h a b le , s u c h a s le a v e s , a n d b r a n c h e s . L a te r, m o re d u ra b le n a tu r a l m a te ria ls — s u c h a s c la y , s to n e , a n d t im b e r — a n d , fin a lly , s y n th e tic m a te r ia ls — s u c h as b ric k , c o n c r e te , m e ta ls , a n d p la s tic s — w e re u s e d . A n o t h e r is a q u e s t fo r b u ild in g s o f e v e r g re a te r h e ig h t a n d s p a n ; th is w as m a d e p o s s ib le b y t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s tr o n g e r m a te r ia ls a n d b y k n o w le d g e o f h o w m a te r ia ls b e h a v e a n d h o w to e x p lo it t h e m t o g r e a te r a d v a n ta g e . A t h i r d m a jo r t r e n d in v o lv e s t h e d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d o v e r t h e i n t e r i o r e n v ir o n m e n t o f b u ild in g s : in c re a s in g ly p re c is e re g u la tio n o f a ir te m p e r a t u r e , lig h t a n d s o u n d le v e ls , h u m id ity , o d o u r s , a i r s p e e d , a n d o t h e r fa c to rs t h a t a ffe c t h u m a n c o m f o r t h a s b e e n p o s s ib le . Y e t a n o t h e r t r e n d is th e c h a n g e in e n e rg y a v a ila b le t o th e c o n s tr u c tio n p ro c e s s , s ta rtin g w ith h u m a n m u s c le p o w e r a n d d e v e lo p in g to w a rd th e p o w e rfu l m a c h in e ry u s e d to d a y . • TAPESCRIPT 2A THE FATHER OF THE AMERICAN SKYSCRAPER W illia m L e B a r o n J e n n e y ( 1 8 3 2 - 1 9 0 7 ) w a s a n A m e r ic a n c iv il e n g in e e r a n d a r c h i t e c t w h o b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e F a t h e r o f t h e A m e ric a n s k y s c ra p e r. J e n n e y w a s b o m i n F a irh a v e n , M a s s a c h u s e tts o n S e p te m b e r 2 5 , 1832. J e n n e y firs t b e g a n h is fo r m a l e d u c a t i o n a t th e L a w re n c e S c ie n tific s c h o o l a t H a rv a rd in 1853, b u t tra n s fe rre d t o P a ris to g e t a n e d u c a t i o n in e n g in e e r in g a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e . H e g r a d u a te d i n 185 6 , o n e y e a r a f te r h is c la s s m a te , G u s ta v e E iffe l, t h e d e s ig n e r o f th e E iffe l T o w e r. I n 1861, h e r e t u r n e d t o th e U S to j o i n t h e U n i o n A r m y a s a n e n g in e e r in th e C iv il W a r . A f te r th e w a r, in 1 867, J e n n e y m o v e d t o C h ic a g o , I llin o is a n d b e g a n h is 328I Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей o w n a r c h ite c tu r a l o ffic e , w h ic h s p e c ia liz e d in c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g s a n d u r b a n p la n n in g . I n 1998, J e n n e y w a s r a n k e d n u m b e r 89 in th e b o o k “ 1 ,000 Y e a rs , 1 ,0 0 0 P e o p le . R a n k in g th e M e n a n d W o m e n W h o S h a p e d t h e M ille n n iu m ” . J e n n e y is b e s t k n o w n f o r d e s ig n in g th e t e n s to r e y H o m e In s u r a n c e B u ild in g in C h ic a g o . T h e b u ild in g w a s t h e firs t fu lly m e t a l- f r a m e s k y s c r a p e r , a n d is c o n s id e r e d t h e first s k y s c ra p e r. I t w a s b u ilt fr o m 1884 to 1 885, e n la r g e d in 18 9 1 , a n d d e m o lis h e d in 1931. I n h is d e s ig n s , h e u s e d m e ta l c o lu m n s a n d b e a m s , i n s te a d o f s to n e a n d b r i c k t o s u p p o r t t h e b u ild in g ’s u p p e r le v e ls. T h e ste e l n e e d e d t o s u p p o r t t h e H o m e I n s u r a n c e B u ild in g w e ig h e d o n ly o n e - t h i r d a s m u c h a s a te n - s t o r e y b u ild in g m a d e o f h e a v y m a s o n r y . U s in g th is m e th o d , t h e w e ig h t o f t h e b u ild in g w a s r e d u c e d , th u s a llo w in g t h e p o s s ib ility t o c o n s tr u c t e v e n t a lle r s t r u c tu r e s . L a te r , h e so lv e d t h e p r o b le m o f f i r e p r o o f c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r ta ll b u ild in g s b y u s in g m a s o n r y , ir o n , a n d t e r r a c o t t a f lo o r in g a n d p a r titio n s . H e d is p la y e d h is s y s te m in t h e L e tte r B u ild in g , a lso b u ilt in C h ic a g o b e tw e e n t h e y e a rs 1889 a n d 1891. • TAPESCRIPT 2B NIKOLAI V. N IKITIN N ik o la i V a s ily e v ic h N ik itin w a s a c o n s tr u c tio n e n g in e e r a n d s t r u c t u r a l d e s ig n e r o f th e S o v ie t U n i o n , b e s t k n o w n f o r h is m o n u m e n ta l s tr u c tu r e s . N ik itin w a s b o r n in T o b o ls k , S ib e r ia in 1907 t o t h e fa m ily o f a t y p o g r a p h ic a l e n g in e e r . I n 193 0 , N ik itin g r a d u a te d f ro m th e T o m s k T e c h n o lo g ic a l I n s titu te w ith t r a in in g in c o n s tru c tio n . I n 1932, h e d e s ig n e d th e t r a m s ta tio n o f N o v o s ib irs k . B y 1937, h e w a s liv in g a n d w o r k in g i n M o s c o w . H e tu r n e d h is a t t e n t i o n to c a lc u la tio n s a n d d e s ig n o f f o u n d a tio n s a n d s u p p o r tin g s tr u c tu r e s . I n 1957 h e w as a p p o in te d c h i e f d e s ig n e r o f M o s p r o e k t I n s titu te f o r th e P la n n in g o f H o u s in g a n d C iv il E n g in e e r in g C o n s tr u c tio n in th e C ity o f M o s c o w . N i k i t i n d ie d o n 3 M a r c h 1973 H is s e le c te d w o rk s a r e M o s c o w S ta te U n iv e r s ity ’s 2 4 0 m h ig h m a in b u ild in g ( a t th e tim e o f its c o n s tru c tio n it w as th e ta lle st b u ild in g TAPESCRIPTS 329 in E u r o p e , b u ilt f ro m 1949 t o 1 9 5 3 ); L u z h n ik i S ta d iu m , c o lo s s a l 8 5 - m e te r s t a tu e o n th e M a m a y e v K u r g a n h e ig h ts o v e rlo o k in g V o lg o g ra d , “ T h e M o t h e r l a n d C a lls ” a n d m a n y o th e rs . A m o n g N i k i t i n ’s w o rk s — th e O s ta n k in o T o w e r — h a s g o t th e m o s t fa m e . S t a n d in g 5 4 0 m e tr e s ta ll, it is a te le v is io n a n d ra d io to w e r in M o sc o w . It is n a m e d a fte r th e O s ta n k in o d is tric t o f M o sc o w in w h ic h it is lo c a te d . I ts c o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n 1963 a n d w a s c o m p le te d in 1 967. T h e t o w e r w a s t h e firs t f r e e - s ta n d in g s tr u c tu r e t o e x c e e d 5 0 0 m in h e ig h t. I t s u rp a s s e d t h e E m p ir e S ta te B u ild in g to b e c o m e t h e t a lle s t fr e e - s ta n d in g s tr u c tu r e in th e w o rld . T h e O s ta n k in o T o w e r h a s r e m a i n e d t h e ta lle s t fr e e - s ta n d in g s t r u c tu r e in E u r o p e fo r 4 2 y e a rs . • TAPESCRIPT ЗА CONSTRUCTION CAREERS T h e r e a re m a n y r o u te s t o t h e d if f e r e n t c a r e e r s w ith in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s tr y w h ic h v a ry b y c o u n tr y . H o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e th r e e m a in tie rs o f c a re e rs b a s e d o n e d u c a tio n a l b a c k g r o u n d w h ic h a re c o m m o n in te rn a tio n a lly : u n s k ille d a n d s e m i- s k ille d — g e n e r a l s ite la b o u r w ith little o r n o c o n s tr u c tio n q u a lific a tio n s ; sk ille d — o n - s ite m a n a g e rs w h o p o sse ss e x te n s iv e k n o w le d g e a n d e x p e r ie n c e in t h e i r c r a f t o r p ro fe s s io n ; te c h n i c a l a n d m a n a g e m e n t — p e r s o n n e l w i t h th e g r e a te s t e d u c a tio n a l q u a lif ic a tio n s , u s u a lly g ra d u a te d e g re e s , t r a i n e d to d e s ig n , m a n a g e a n d in s tr u c t th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p ro c e s s . S k ille d o c c u p a t i o n s in t h e U K r e q u i r e f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n q u a lific a tio n s, o fte n in v o c a tio n a l s u b je c t a re a s. T h e s e q u a lific a tio n s are e ith e r o b ta in e d d irectly a fter th e c o m p le tio n o f c o m p u lso ry e d u c a tio n o r t h ro u g h “ o n th e j o b ” a p p re n tic e s h ip tra in in g . I n th e U K , 850 0 c o n s tru c tio n -re la te d a p p re n tic e s h ip s w e re c o m m e n c e d in 2007. T e c h n ic a l a n d s p e c ia lis e d o c c u p a tio n s r e q u ire m o r e t r a in in g as a g re a te r t e c h n i c a l k n o w le d g e is r e q u ir e d . T h e p ro fe s s io n s , lik e a c iv il e n g in e e r , a b u ild in g se rv ic e s e n g in e e r , a p r o je c t m a n a g e r, a q u a n tity s u rv e y o r s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r a n d o th e r s h o ld m o r e le g a l re s p o n s ib ility . 330I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей • TAPESCRIPT ЗВ CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERS C o n s t r u c t i o n e n g in e e r s e n g a g e in t h e d e s ig n o f t e m p o r a r y s tr u c tu r e s , q u a lity a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a lity c o n tr o l, b u ild in g a n d s ite la y o u t su rv e y s, o n s ite m a te r ia l te s tin g , c o n c r e te m ix d e s ig n , c o s t e s tim a tin g , p la n n in g a n d s c h e d u lin g , s a fe ty e n g in e e r in g , m a te n a ls p r o c u r e m e n t, a n d c o s t e n g in e e r in g a n d b u d g e tin g . T o c o m p le te p r o je c ts c o n s tr u c tio n e n g in e e r s re ly o n p la n s a n d sp e c ific a tio n s c re a te d b y a rc h ite c ts , e n g in e e rs a n d o th e r c o n s tr u c to r s . D u r in g m o s t o f t h e 2 0 th c e n tu r y s tr u c tu r e s h a v e b e e n first d e s ig n e d th e n e n g in e e r in g s ta f f e n s u r e it is b u ilt t o p la n s a n d s p e c if ic a tio n s b y te s tin g a n d o v e r s e e in g t h e c o n s tr u c tio n . P r e v io u s t o th e 2 0 th c e n tu r y a n d m o r e c o m m o n ly s in c e t h e s ta r t o f t h e 21 st c e n tu r y s tr u c tu r e s a r e d e s ig n e d a n d b u ilt in c o m b in a tio n , a llo w in g f o r s ite c o n s id e r a tio n s a n d c o n s tr u c tio n m e th o d s t o in f lu e n c e th e d e sig n p ro c e s s . K e e p in g a w o r k p la c e sa fe is a k e y t o h a v in g a s u c c e s s f u l c o n s tr u c tio n c o m p a n y . I t is t h e c o n s tr u c tio n e n g in e e r ’s jo b t o m a k e s u re th a t e v e r y th in g is c o n d u c te d c o rre c tly . C o n s tr u c tio n e n g in e e r s a re a lso in v o lv ed h eav ily w ith th e c o n s tr u c tio n s c h e d u le a n d d o c u m e n t c o n tr o l a s w e ll a s b u d g e t a n d c o s t c o n tr o l. T h e i r ro le o n s ite is to p ro v id e c o n s tr u c tio n i n f o r m a tio n , in c lu d in g r e p a ir s , r e q u e s ts f o r in f o r m a tio n , c h a n g e o r d e r s a n d p a y m e n t a p p lic a tio n s . C o n s t r u c t i o n e n g in e e r s s h o u ld h a v e s tr o n g u n d e r s ta n d in g f o r m a t h a n d s c ie n c e , b u t m a n y o t h e r s k ills a r e r e q u ir e d , i n c lu d in g c n t i c a l th in k in g , lis te n in g , le a r n in g , p r o b le m s o lv in g , m o n ito r in g a n d d e c is io n m a k in g . C o n s tr u c tio n e n g in e e r s h a v e t o b e a b le to t h i n k a b o u t a ll a s p e c ts o f a p r o b le m a n d lis te n t o o t h e r s ’ id e a s so t h a t t h e y c a n le a m e v e ry th in g a b o u t a p r o je c t b e fo re it b e g in s. T h e y m u s t m a in ta in p r o je c t c o n tr o l o f la b o u r a n d e q u i p m e n t f o r sa fe ty , t o e n s u r e th e p r o je c t is o n s c h e d u le a n d m o n i t o r q u a lity c o n tr o l. W h e n a p r o b le m o c c u r s it is th e c o n s t r u c t i o n e n g in e e r w h o w ill c r e a te a n d e n a c t a s o lu tio n TAPESCRIPTS 331 • TAPESCRIPT 4A BUILDING I n a r c h i t e c t u r e , c o n s t r u c t i o n , e n g i n e e r i n g a n d re a l e s ta te d e v e lo p m e n t th e w o r d building m a y re fe r t o o n e o f t h e fo llo w in g : a n y m a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r e u s e d o r i n t e n d e d f o r s u p p o r tin g o r sh e lte rin g a n y u se o r c o n tin u o u s o c c u p a n c y , o r a n a c t o f c o n s tr u c tio n . B u ild in g s c o m e i n a w id e a m o u n t o f s h a p e s a n d fu n c tio n s , a n d h a v e b e e n a d a p t e d th r o u g h o u t h is to r y f o r a w id e n u m b e r o f f a c to rs , fr o m b u ild in g m a te r ia ls a v a ila b le , t o w e a th e r c o n d i t i o n s , t o l a n d p ric e s , g ro u n d c o n d itio n s , s p e c ific u s e s a n d a e s th e tic reaso n s. B u ild in g s serv e sev eral n e e d s o f s o c ie ty — p n m a n ly a s s h e l t e r fro m w e a th e r a n d a s g e n e r a l liv in g s p a c e , t o p ro v id e p riv a c y , to s to re b e lo n g in g s a n d t o liv e a n d w o rk . R e s id e n tia l b u ild in g s a re c a lle d h o u s e s /h o m e s , th o u g h b u ild in g s c o n ta in in g larg e n u m b e r s o f s e p a ra te d w e llin g u n its a re o f te n c a lle d a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s /b lo c k s t o d iff e r e n tia te t h e m fro m th e m o re “ in d iv id u a l” h o u se . B u ild in g ty p e s m a y ra n g e fro m o n e - r o o m w o o d fra m e d , m a s o n ry , o r a d o b e d w e llin g s t o m u l ti- m illio n d o lla r h ig h rise b u ild in g s a b le t o h o u s e th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le . I n c r e a s in g s e t t l e m e n t d e n s ity in b u ild in g s a n d c lo s e r d i s ta n c e s b e tw e e n b u ild in g s is u s u a lly a re s p o n s e t o h ig h g r o u n d p r ic e s re s u ltin g fro m m a n y p e o p le w a n tin g t o live c lo s e t o w o rk o r s im ila r a ttra c to rs . A m u ltis to re y e d b u ild in g is a b u ild in g t h a t h a s m u ltip le flo o rs a b o v e g r o u n d i n th e b u ild in g . M u lti- s to r e y b u ild in g s a im to in c re a s e th e a r e a o f th e b u ild in g w ith o u t i n c re a s in g th e a r e a o f th e la n d th e b u ild in g is b u ilt o n , h e n c e s a v in g l a n d a n d , in m o s t c a se s, m oney. • TAPESCRIPT 4B SKYSCRAPERS A b u ild in g m a n y s to re y s h ig h w as first c a lle d a s k y s c ra p e r in th e 1880s in th e U n i t e d S ta te s . T h e y w e re d e v e lo p e d in th e la s t p a r t o f t h e 1 9 th c e n tu r y as a r e s u lt o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n c e m e n t a n d th e s o c ia l c o n d itio n s a t t h a t tim e . T h e y a re n o w o f t e n r e fe rre d to as 332 Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей h ig h -ris e b u ild in g s. T h e c ity o f N e w Y o rk s e t th e s k y s c ra p e r p a tte r n . B e c a u se t h e g r o u n d b e n e a th t h e c ity s tre e ts is ro c k , it is s o lid e n o u g h t o ta k e th e h e a v ie s t lo a d s w ith o u t s u b s id in g a s s o f te r e a r t h w o u ld d o , a n d th e r e f o r e it is w e ll s u ite d t o b e a r in g th e w e ig h t o f ta ll b u ild in g s . A r c h ite c ts a n d c iv il e n g in e e r s a ll o v e r t h e U n i t e d S ta te s w e r e e x p e r im e n tin g , e s p e c ia lly w ith ste e l w h ic h w a s m u c h l ig h te r t h a n i r o n . T h e s e ta ll b u ild in g s w e re r e q u ir e d s o t h a t m illio n s o f p e o p le m ig h t b e a b le t o live a n d w o r k in a c o m p a r a tiv e ly s m a ll a r e a . I f s k y s c r a p e r s a r e b u ilt t h e p o p u la tio n o f a w h o le to w n c a n liv e o n q u ite a s m a ll p lo t o f la n d . T h is is u se fu l w h e r e l a n d is e x p e n s iv e . S k y s c r a p e r s h a v e c e r ta in d is a d v a n ta g e s . I f t h e y a r e b u ilt in a s tr e e t o f o r d in a r y w id th , w h e re t h e p e o p le w h o w o r k in th e m c o m e p o u r in g o u t a t t h e e n d o f th e d a y , t h e s tr e e t w ill b e o v e r c r o w d e d . M o r e o v e r , a s k y s c r a p e r th r o w s a lo n g s h a d o w , th e r e b y k e e p in g t h e s u n fro m a g r e a t m a n y p e o p le a t c e r ta in h o u rs . T w o s k y s c ra p e rs b u ilt n e a r o n e a n o t h e r w o u ld b e a p t t o t r a p t h e fu m e s o f p e tr o l in th e s p a c e b e tw e e n th e m . T o o v e r c o m e th e s e d if f ic u ltie s a s c h e m e c a lle d z o n in g w a s in tr o d u c e d in t h e U n ite d S ta te s in t h e 1930s, w h e r e b y s k y s c ra p e rs h a d to b e s e t a c e r ta in d is ta n c e f r o m o t h e r b u ild in g s , d e p e n d in g o n t h e i r h e ig h t. M o d e r n s k y s c r a p e r s a r e u s u a lly b u ilt w ith o p e n s p a c e s , p e d e s tr ia n p r e c in c ts , o r s h o p p in g c e n tr e s a t s tr e e t lev e ls to m a k e t h e s u r r o u n d in g s m o r e a ttr a c tiv e . • TAPESCRIPT 5A ROMAN CONCRETE D u r in g th e R o m a n E m p ir e , R o m a n c o n c r e te w a s m a d e fro m q u ic k lim e , p o z z o la n a , a n d a n a g g re g a te o f p u m ic e . C o n c r e t e , a s th e R o m a n s k n e w it, w a s in e ffe c t a n ew a n d re v o lu tio n a r y m a te ria l. L a id in th e s h a p e o f a r c h e s , v a u lts a n d d o m e s , it q u ic k ly h a r d e n e d in to a rig id m a s s , free fro m m a n y o f th e in te r n a l th r u s ts a n d s tr a in s w h ic h tr o u b le th e b u ild e r s o f s im ila r s tr u c tu r e s in s to n e o r b r ic k . M o d e m s tr u c tu r a l c o n c r e te d iffers fro m R o m a n c o n c r e te in tw o i m p o r t a n t d e t a i l s . F i r s t , i t s m ix c o n s i s t e n c y is f l u i d a n d h o m o g e n e o u s , a llo w in g it t o b e p o u r e d in to fo r m s r a t h e r t h a n re q u ir in g h a n d - la y e r in g t o g e th e r w ith th e p l a c e m e n t o f a g g re g a te , TAPESCRIPTS 333 w h ic h , in R o m a n p r a c tic e , o f te n c o n s is te d o f ru b b le . S e c o n d , in te g ra l re in f o r c in g s te e l g iv e s m o d e r n c o n c r e te a s s e m b lie s g re a t s tr e n g th in te n s io n , w h e re a s R o m a n c o n c r e te c o u ld d e p e n d o n ly u p o n th e s tre n g th o f t h e c o n c r e te b o n d in g t o re sist te n s io n . T h e w id e s p re a d u se o f c o n c r e te in m a n y R o m a n s tru c tu r e s h a s e n s u re d t h a t m a n y survive to t h e p re s e n t d a y . T h e B a th s o f C a ra c a lla in R o m e a re j u s t o n e e x a m p le o f th e lo n g e v ity o f c o n c r e t e , w h ic h a llo w e d th e R o m a n s t o b u ild th is a n d s im ila r s t r u c tu r e s a c ro s s t h e R o m a n E m p ire . M a n y R o m a n a q u e d u c ts a n d R o m a n b rid g e s h a v e m a s o n r y c la d d in g t o a c o n c r e te c o r e , a t e c h n i q u e t h e y u s e d in s tru c tu r e s s u c h a s th e P a n t h e o n , th e d o m e o f w h ic h is c o n c r e te T h e s e c re t o f c o n c re te w a s lo s t f o r 13 c e n tu r ie s u n til 1756, w h e n th e B n tis h e n g in e e r J o h n S m e a to n p io n e e r e d t h e u s e o f h y d ra u lic lim e in c o n c r e t e , u s in g p e b b le s a n d p o w d e r e d b r ic k a s a g g re g a te . P o r t l a n d c e m e n t w a s firs t u s e d in c o n c r e t e i n t h e e a r ly 1840s. • TAPESCRIPT 5B FROM THE HISTORY OF BRICKMAKING B ric k s w e re firs t u s e d f o r b u ild in g i n t h e M id d le E a s t. M o re th a n 6 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a g o th e S u m e r ia n p e o p le liv in g in th e v a lle y o f th e T ig ris a n d E u p h ra te s riv e rs d is c o v e re d th a t t h e m u d d y c la y d e p o s ite d b y t h e tw o riv e rs w a s id e a l f o r b u ild in g . T h e c la y w a s m ix e d w ith w a te r a n d s tra w a n d p r e s s e d i n t o r e c ta n g u la r m o u ld s . T h e b ric k s w e re t h e n t u r n e d o u t o f t h e m o u ld s a n d le f t t o d ry in th e s u n . S u n d r ie d b ric k s s u c h a s th e s e , k n o w n a s a b o d e a f t e r t h e c la y f r o m w h ic h t h e y a re m a d e , a re still u s e d fo r b u ild in g in w a rm , d ry re g io n s t h r o u g h o u t A fric a a n d S o u th A m e r ic a . A d o b e is c h e a p a n d c a n la s t fo r c e n tu r ie s . T h e n e x t d e v e lo p m e n t in th e h isto ry o f b ric k m a k in g c a m e a ro u n d 4 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a g o w h e n th e b ric k k iln w a s in v e n te d in th e v a lle y o f th e T ig ris a n d E u p h r a te s . B ric k m a k e rs fo u n d t h a t i f b ric k s w e re fire d a f te r th e y h a d b e e n d r ie d in t h e s u n , th e y w e re h a r d e r a n d b e t t e r a b le t o w ith s ta n d d a m p . T h e e a rlie s t ty p e o f k iln w a s a b e e h iv e ­ s h a p e d m o u n d o f d rie d b ric k s w ith a rc h e s a t t h e b o tto m in w h ic h th e fire s c o u ld b e lit. L a te r k iln s w e re p e r m a n e n t b u ild in g s in w h ic h 3 3 4 J Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей t h e b r ic k s w e re slo w ly h e a te d u p a n d a llo w e d t o c o o l o v e r a p e r io d o f f o u r d a y s. F r o m th e M id d le E a s t, t h e a n c ie n t c r a f t o f b r ic k m a k in g s p r e a d w e s tw a r d to E g y p t a n d th e M e d ite r r a n e a n a n d e a s tw a r d t o I n d i a a n d C h in a . R o m a n b u ild e r s b r o u g h t b r ic k s to B r ita in in t h e 1st c e n tu r y A D , b u t w h e n th e R o m a n E m p ir e fell in th e 5 th c e n tu r y , th e a r t o f b r ic k m a k in g w a s lo s t f o r s o m e 6 0 0 y e a rs. I t w as re v iv e d b y th e I ta lia n s in th e 11 th c e n tu r y a n d s p r e a d q u ic k ly th r o u g h o u t n o r th e r n E u r o p e . B y th e m i d - 1 7 t h c e n tu r y b r i c k - b u ilt w a lls w e re re p la c in g th e o ld tim b e r f r a m e w o r k s in b u ild in g s . • TAPESCRIPT 6A THE ELASTIC THEORY OF STRUCTURES A s ig n if ic a n t a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e first in d u s tr ia l a g e w a s th e e m e r g e n c e o f b u ild in g s c ie n c e , p a r tic u la r ly th e e la s tic th e o r y o f s tr u c tu r e s . W ith it, m a th e m a tic a l m o d e ls c o u ld b e u s e d t o p r e d i c t s tr u c tu r a l p e r f o r m a n c e w ith c o n s id e r a b le a c c u r a c y , p r o v id e d th e r e w a s a d e q u a te q u a lity c o n tr o l o f th e m a te r ia ls u s e d . A lth o u g h s o m e e le m e n ts o f th e e la s tic t h e o r y , s u c h a s th e S w iss m a th e m a t i c i a n L e o n h a r d E u le r ’s th e o r y o f c o lu m n b u c k lin g (1 7 5 7 ) , w e re w o r k e d o u t e a r lie r , th e re a l d e v e lo p m e n t b e g a n w ith t h e E n g lis h s c ie n tis t T h o m a s Y o u n g ’s m o d e r n d e f in itio n o f th e m o d u lu s o f e la s tic ity in 1807. L o u is N a v ie r p u b lis h e d th e e la s tic t h e o r y o f b e a m s in 1826, a n d th r e e m e th o d s o f a n a ly z in g fo rc e s in tr u s s e s w e re d e v is e d b y S q u ir e W h ip p le , A . R itte r , a n d J a m e s C le r k M a x w e ll b e tw e e n 1847 a n d 1864. T h e c o n c e p t o f a sta tic a lly d e te r m in a te s tr u c tu r e — t h a t is, a s tru c tu re w h o se fo rc e s c o u ld b e d e te r m in e d fro m N e w to n ’s la w s o f m o tio n a lo n e — w a s s e t f o r th b y O tto M o h r in 187 4 , a f te r h a v in g b e e n u se d in tu itiv e ly fo r p e rh a p s 4 0 years. M o s t 1 9 th -c e n tu ry s tr u c tu r e s w e re p u r p o s e ly d e s ig n e d a n d fa b ric a te d w ith p in jo in ts to b e s ta tic a lly d e te r m in a te ; it w a s n o t u n til t h e 2 0 th c e n tu r y th a t s ta tic a lly i n d e te r m in a te s tr u c tu r e s b e c a m e r e a d ily s o lv a b le . T h e e la s tic t h e o r y f o r m e d t h e b a s is o f s tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is u n til W o r ld W a r I I , w h e n b o m b - d a m a g e d b u ild in g s w e re o b s e rv e d t o b e h a v e in u n p r e d ic te d w ays a n d th e u n d e rly in g a s s u m p tio n s o f th e th e o r y w ere f o u n d to re q u ir e m o d ific a tio n . TAPESCRIPTS - lili • TAPESCRIPT 6B NANOTECHNOLODY'S FOR REAL IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY N a n o te c h n o lo g y is s o m e tim e s s e e n a s a ll h y p e , w ith little re a lw o rld a p p lic a tio n . B u t n a n o m a te r ia ls a re a lr e a d y a ll a r o u n d u s T a k e t h e b u ild in g s t h a t w e liv e a n d w o r k in , fo r i n s ta n c e . Y o u w ill f in d n a n o te c h n o lo g y u s e d t o c r e a te s tr o n g e r s te e l, s e lf- c le a n in g g la ss, s o la r - c o lle c tin g fa b ric s , a n d e v e n s m o g - e a tin g c o n c r e te . A n d n o t o n ly a re th e s e n a n o m a te r ia ls p r e s e n t in o u r b u ild in g s , th e y a re m a k in g th e m b e t t e r p la c e s t o liv e a n d w o rk . S e lf - c le a n in g g la ss h a s a n a n o p a r tic le c o a tin g d ir t c a n ’t s tic k t o , e l im in a tin g t h e n e e d fo r e x p e n s iv e a n d d a n g e r o u s m a n u a l w in d o w w a s h in g o n t a ll b u ild in g s . S o la r - c o lle c tin g fa b ric is th e firs t o f a n e w w a v e o f b u i ld in g c o m p o n e n t s t h a t c o n v e r t s o la r ra d ia tio n in to e le c tric ity T h a t m e a n s n o m o re a p p ly in g u n a ttra c tiv e s o la r p a n e ls t o t h e r o o f, b u t i n s te a d in te g r a tin g e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n in to b u ild in g fa c a d e s . N a n o c o m p o s ite s te e l is m o r e c o r r o s io n re s is ta n t t h a n c o n v e n tio n a l s te e l, a n d c a n r e d u c e in s ta lla tio n c o s ts b y u p to 5 0 % . A n d th e q u a n tity re q u ir e d t o m a k e a b u ild in g m a y b e u p t o 4 0 % le ss t h a n c o n v e n tio n a l ste e l. S m o g - e a tin g c o n c r e te is p r o d u c e d b y a p p ly in g a n a n o la y e r o f t i ta n iu m d io x id e t o c o n c r e te , w h ic h trig g e rs a c a ta ly tic r e a c tio n th a t d e s tro y s m a n y p o llu ta n ts in c o n ta c t w ith t h e s u rfa c e . A t th e v e ry le a s t, th e s e m a te r ia ls r e d u c e b u i l d i n g m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts , le a v in g m o r e m o n e y f o r o t h e r im p r o v e m e n ts , a n d th e y c a n h e lp c le a n u p th e e n v ir o n m e n t. T h e y c a n re d u c e e n e rg y c o sts as well. A n d fo r e v e ry n a n o m a te ria l a v a ila b le t o d a y , t h e r e a re a p p r o x im a te ly s e v e n ty m o r e in r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t, m e a n in g t h a t b u ild in g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a rc h ite c tu r e a re in fo r s o m e b ig c h a n g e s th a n k s t o s m a ll t e c h n o lo g y . • TAPESCRIPT 7A A HORIZONTAL SUPPORT A b e a m is a s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t m a in ly w o rk in g i n b e n d in g th ro u g h th e a g e n c y o f v e rtic a l fo rc e s a n d t h a t tra n s m its t o t h e b e a rin g p o in ts th e lo a d s t h a t a re a p p lie d t o it. A b e a m is a l e n g th e n e d a n d 336 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей h o r iz o n ta l s u p p o r t m a d e o f m e ta l, w o o d , r e in f o r c e d o r p r e s tr e s s e d c o n c r e te a n d w h o s e s e c tio n h a s b e e n s tu d ie d f o r a g o o d b e n d in g s t r e n g th B e a m s a r e m a in ly s u b je c te d t o b e n d in g m o m e n ts a n d s h e a r in g f o r c e s . S im p le b e a m s a r e m a d e u p o f o n ly o n e p ie c e , o f a s e c tio n c a lc u la te d t o w ith s ta n d th e s tr a in s t h a t a im a t m a k in g th e m b e n d in g . W h e n t h e s tr a in s b e c o m e to o s tr o n g , r e in f o r c e d b e a m s o r c o m p o u n d b e a m s a r e t h e n u s e d . B e a m s re s t - e ith e r o n a b e a r in g w ith r e s tr a in t ( c a n tile v e r ) o r a r e r e s tr a in e d a t b o t h e n d s ( e x c e p tio n a l) ; - e i t h e r o n a c a n tile v e r a n d a r e t h e n p r e s e n te d a s c o n t i n u o u s b e a m s t o w h ic h h a v e b e e n a d d e d a n u m b e r o f e x tr a a r tic u l a t i o n s in o r d e r t o f re e o n e s e lf o f th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e d if f e r e n c e in lev el o f th e s u p p o rts , - e i t h e r o n tw o fre e b e a r in g s , fr e e a n d r e s tr a in e d ; th e y a r e in d e p e n d e n t o r is o s ta tic b e a m s . T h e s e b e a m s w o r k o n t h e p o s itiv e b e n d in g m o m e n t in th e m id d le o f s p a n a n d w ith s im p le s h e a r in g fo rc e o n b e a r in g , - e i t h e r o n se v e ra l b e a r in g s ( b e a m in c o n t in u ity ) ; th e y a r e c o n tin u o u s o r h y p e r s ta tic b e a m s . T h is ty p e o f b e a m b e a r s o n o n e h a n d a p o sitiv e b e n d in g m o m e n t m u c h w e a k e r t h a n a n i n d e p e n d e n t b e a m ; b u t , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , w h e n o n b e a r in g , it b e a r s a n im p o r ta n t n e g a tiv e b e n d in g m o m e n t a s w ell a s th e s h e a r in g fo rc e . • TAPESCRIPT 7B ROOF T h e r o o f o f a b u ild in g o f te n re fle c ts th e c lim a te o f th e p la c e in w h ic h th e b u ild in g is lo c a te d s in c e it p r o te c ts th e p e o p le in it fr o m ra in a n d s u n . In d ry c o u n tr ie s th e r o o f is f la t a n d c a n b e u s e d a s a n o u td o o r r o o m w h e n th e s u n is n o t t o o h o t W h e r e it o f te n r a in s th e r o o f u su a lly slo p e s so t h a t th e w e t c a n r u n o f f it, a n d w h e re th e r e a re sn o w fa lls, th e r o o f s lo p e s s te e p ly s o t h a t t h e s n o w w ill s lid e o f f a n d n o t b u ild u p in to a t h ic k la y e r. A r o o f t h a t slo p e s is c a lle d a p itc h e d ro o f. A f te r a tim e p e o p le f o u n d it i n c o n v e n ie n t to live i n a h o u s e w ith s lo p in g sid e s, so t h e y b u ilt u p r ig h t w a lls a n d la id b ig b e a m s TAPESCRIPTS 337 c a lle d tie -b e a m s a c ro s s t h e to p a t re g u la r d is ta n c e s fro m e a c h o th e r T h e n th e y p u t u p th e t r ia n g u la r fra m e w o rk s r e s tin g o n t h e tie b e a m s . T h e s e tr ia n g le s o f b e a m s a re c a lle d t r u s s e s A rid g e - p ie c e , p u rlin s , a n d ra fte rs w e re u s e d to c o m p le te t h e s k e le to n o f th e ro o f. In th e M id d le A g e s th e w o o d e n fra m e o f th e r o o f w a s n o t h id d e n b y a c e ilin g o n th e in s id e a n d w a s o fte n ric h ly d e c o ra te d . T o in c re a se th e e ffe c t o f h e ig h t a n d s p a c e t h e h a m m e r - b e a m r o o f w a s d e sig n e d T h is h a d n o t ie - b e a m s , b u t in s te a d th e r e w e re s h o r t b e a m s s tic k in g o u t f ro m b o t h w a lls, a n d t o t h e s e b e a m s o t h e r tim b e r s c a lle d s tru ts w e re fix e d t o s u p p o r t t h e m a m ra fte rs . T h e w a t e r p r o o f c o v e r in g o f a p i t c h e d r o o f is u s u a lly o f t ile s , s la te s , o r s h in g le s . T ile s a re t h i n s la b s o f b a k e d c la y , g e n e ra lly re d o r b r o w n in c o lo u r . S t r i p s o f w o o d c a lle d b a t t e n s a re fix e d t o th e o u ts id e o f t h e ra fte rs , u s u a lly o v e r s h e e ts o f w e a t h e r p r o o f ro o fin g f e lt w h ic h h e lp t o k e e p o u t d r a u g h ts a n d w in d - b lo w n s n o w T h e tile s , s h in g le s , o r s la te s a re th e n h u n g o n b y p r o je c tin g p ie c e s c a lle d m b s , o r n a ile d o r c l i p p e d t o th e b a t t e n s in re g u la r h o r iz o n ta l ro w s o r c o u rs e s . F l a t ro o fs u s u a lly c o n s is t o f b o a r d s c o v e r e d w ith o v e rla p p in g s h e e ts o f r o o f in g fe lt c o a te d w ith b i t u m e n W h e n a r o o f h a s t o c o v e r a la rg e s p a c e , s te e l tru s s e s a re u s e d i n s te a d o f w o o d . L a rg e fla t ro o fs m a y b e m a d e o f re in f o r c e d c o n c r e te w ith a w a te r p r o o f c o v e rin g . • TAPESCRIPT 8A STRUCTURAL BUILDING ENGINEERING S tru c tu ra l b u ild in g e n g in e e rin g in c lu d e s all s tru c tu ra l e n g in e e rin g r e la te d t o th e d e s ig n o f b u ild in g s . It is th e b r a n c h o f s tr u c tu r a l e n g i n e e r i n g t h a t is c lo s e t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . S t r u c t u r a l b u i l d i n g e n g in e e r in g is p r im a r ily d riv e n b y th e c r e a tiv e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f m a te ria ls a n d fo rm s a n d th e u n d e rly in g m a th e m a tic a l a n d sc ie n tific id e a s t o a c h ie v e a n e n d w h ic h fu lfills its f u n c t i o n a l re q u ir e m e n ts a n d is s tr u c tu r a lly s a fe w h e n s u b je c te d t o a ll t h e lo a d s it c o u ld r e a s o n a b ly b e e x p e c te d t o e x p e rie n c e . T h is is s u b tly d if f e r e n t fro m a rc h ite c tu r a l d e s ig n , w h ic h is d riv e n b y t h e c r e a tiv e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f m a te r ia ls a n d fo rm s , m a s s , s p a c e , te x tu r e a n d lig h t t o a c h ie v e a n e n d w h ic h is a e s th e tic , fu n c tio n a l a n d o f t e n a rtis tic . 338 Английскийязыкдлястудентовстроительныхспециальностей T h e s tru c tu ra l d e sig n fo r a b u ild in g m u s t e n s u re t h a t t h e b u ild in g is a b le t o s ta n d u p sa fe ly , a b le to f u n c tio n w ith o u t d e f le c tio n s o r m o v e m e n ts w h ic h m a y c a u se fatig u e o f str u c tu r a l e le m e n ts , c ra c k in g o r f a ilu r e o f fix tu r e s , fittin g s o r p a r t i t i o n s , o r d is c o m f o r t f o r o c c u p a n ts . I t m u s t a c c o u n t f o r m o v e m e n ts a n d f o r c e s d u e to te m p e r a tu r e , c re e p , c ra c k in g a n d im p o s e d lo a d s. It m u s t a lso e n s u re th a t th e d esig n is p rac tic a lly b u ild a b le w ith in a c c e p ta b le m a n u fa c tu rin g to le r a n c e s o f th e m a te r ia ls . I t m u s t a llo w th e a r c h ite c tu r e t o w o rk , a n d th e b u ild in g se rv ic e s to fit w ith in t h e b u ild in g a n d f u n c tio n ( a ir c o n d itio n in g , v e n tila tio n , e le c tr ic s , e tc ) . T h e s t r u c tu r a l d e s ig n o f a m o d e m b u ild in g c a n b e e x tr e m e ly c o m p le x , a n d o f te n re q u ir e s a larg e te a m to c o m p le te . • TAPESCRIPT 8B STRUCTURAL ENGINEER S t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r s a n a ly s e , d e s i g n , p l a n , a n d r e s e a r c h stru c tu ra l c o m p o n e n ts a n d stru c tu ra l s y ste m s to a c h ie v e d esig n g o als a n d e n s u r e th e s a f e ty a n d c o m f o r t o f u s e r s o r o c c u p a n ts . T h e ir w o rk ta k e s a c c o u n t o f safety , te c h n ic a l, e c o n o m ic a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n c e r n s , b u t th e y m a y a lso c o n s id e r a e s th e tic a n d s o c ia l f a c to rs . T y p ic a l s tr u c tu r e s d e s ig n e d b y a s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r i n c lu d e b u ild in g s , to w e r s a n d b rid g e s . O th e r s t r u c tu r e s s u c h a s o il rig s, s p a c e s a te llite s , a ir c r a f t a n d s h ip s m a y a ls o b e d e s ig n e d b y a s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r . M o s t s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r s a r e e m p lo y e d i n t h e c o n s tr u c tio n in d u s tr y , h o w e v e r t h e r e a r e a ls o s tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r s in th e a e r o s p a c e , a u to m o b ile a n d s h ip b u ild in g in d u s tr ie s . In th e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s tr y , th e y w o r k c lo s e ly w ith a r c h ite c ts , c iv il e n g in e e r s , m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r s , e l e c tr ic a l e n g in e e r s , s u rv e y o rs , a n d c o n s tr u c tio n m a n a g e rs . S tr u c tu r a l e n g in e e r s e n s u r e t h a t b u ild in g s a n d b r id g e s a r e b u ilt to b e s tr o n g e n o u g h a n d sta b le e n o u g h t o re s is t a ll a p p r o p r ia te s tr u c tu r a l lo a d s in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t o r r e d u c e lo ss o f life o r in ju ry . T h e y a lso d esig n s tru c tu re s to b e stiff e n o u g h to n o t d e fle c t o r v ib ra te b e y o n d a c c e p ta b le lim its. F a tig u e m a y b e a n im p o r ta n t c o n s id e ra tio n f o r b r id g e s a n d f o r a ir c r a f t d e s ig n , o r f o r o t h e r s tr u c tu r e s w h ic h TAPESCRIPTS 339 e x p e r ie n c e a la rg e n u m b e r o f s tre s s c y c le s o v e r t h e i r lif e tim e C o n s id e ra tio n is a lso g iv e n to d u ra b ility o f m a te ria ls a g a in s t p o ssib le d e t e r i o r a t i o n w h ic h m a y im p a i r p e r f o r m a n c e o v e r t h e d e s ig n life tim e . • TAPESCRIPT 9A SURVEYING AS A CAREER T h e b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s o f s u rv e y in g h a v e c h a n g e d little o v e r th e a g e s , b u t th e t o o ls u s e d b y s u rv e y o rs h a v e e v o lv e d t r e m e n d o u s ly E n g in e e r in g , e s p e c ia lly c iv il e n g i n e e r in g , d e p e n d s h e a v ily o n su rv e y o rs. W h e n e v e r t h e r e a r e r o a d s , ra ilw a y s , re s e rv o ir, d a m s , r e ta in in g w a lls, b rid g e s o r re s id e n tia l a re a s t o b e b u ilt, s u rv e y o rs a re in v o lv e d . T h e y e sta b lish th e b o u n d a rie s o f legal d e s c rip tio n s a n d th e b o u n d a rie s o f v a rio u s lin e s o f p o litic a l d iv is io n s . T h e y a ls o p ro v id e a d v ic e a n d d a ta fo r g e o g r a p h ic a l in f o r m a t i o n s y s te m s , c o m p u t e r d a ta b a s e s t h a t c o n t a i n d a ta o n l a n d fe a tu re s a n d b o u n d a r ie s . S u rv e y o rs m u s t h a v e a th o r o u g h k n o w le d g e o f a lg e b ra , b a s ic c a lc u lu s , g e o m e try , a n d t r ig o n o m e tr y . T h e y m u s t a ls o k n o w th e law s t h a t d e a l w ith su rv e y s, p r o p e r ty , a n d c o n tr a c ts . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y m u s t b e a b le t o u s e d e lic a te i n s tr u m e n ts w ith a c c u r a c y a n d p re c is io n . I n th e U n i t e d S ta te s , su rv e y o rs a n d c iv il e n g in e e r s u se u n i t s o f fe e t w h e r e in a su rv e y fo o t is b r o k e n d o w n in to lO th s a n d lO O th s. I n m o s t s ta te s o f t h e U S , s u rv e y in g is re c o g n iz e d a s a d is tin c t p ro fe s s io n a p a r t fro m e n g in e e rin g . L ic e n s in g re q u ir e m e n ts v a ry b y s ta te , h o w e v e r t h e s e r e q u ir e m e n ts g e n e ra lly a ll h a v e a c o m p o n e n t o f e d u c a tio n , e x p e rie n c e a n d e x a m in a tio n s . In th e p a s t, e x p e n e n c e g a in e d th r o u g h a n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , t o g e th e r w ith p a s s in g a s e n e s o f s ta te -a d m in is te re d e x a m in a tio n s , w a s r e q u ire d to a tta in lic e n s u re N o w a d a y s , m o s t s ta te s in s is t u p o n b a s ic q u a l if ic a tio n o f a d e g re e i n s u r v e y i n g in a d d i t i o n re q u i r e m e n t s . to e x p e rie n c e a n d e x a m in a tio n 340 I Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей • TAPESCRIPT 9В MODERN THEODOLITES I n to d a y ’s th e o d o lite s , th e r e a d in g o u t o f th e h o r iz o n ta l a n d v e r tic a l c ir c le s is u s u a lly d o n e e le c tr o n ic a lly . T h e r e a d o u t is d o n e b y a r o ta r y e n c o d e r , w h ic h c a n b e a b s o lu te , e .g . u sin g G r a y c o d e s , o r in c r e m e n ta l, u s in g e q u id is ta n t lig h t a n d d a r k r a d ia l b a n d s . In th e la tte r c a s e th e c irc le s s p in ra p id ly , r e d u c in g a n g le m e a s u r e m e n t to e le c tr o n ic m e a s u r e m e n t o f tim e d iffe re n c e s . A d d itio n a lly , la te ly c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d d is p la y s e n s o r s h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o th e f o c a l p la n e o f th e te le sc o p e allo w in g b o th a u to -ta ig e tm g a n d th e a u to m a te d m e a s u r e m e n t o f r e s id u a l ta r g e t o ffse t. A ll th is is im p le m e n te d in e m b e d d e d so ftw are. A lso , m a n y m o d e r n th e o d o lite s , c o s tin g u p t o $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 a p ie c e , a re e q u i p p e d w ith in te g r a te d e le c tr o - o p tic a l d is ta n c e m e a s u r in g d e v ic e s, g e n e ra lly in f r a r e d b a s e d , a llo w in g th e m e a s u r e m e n t in o n e g o o f c o m p le te th r e e - d im e n s io n a l v e c to r s w h ic h c a n th e n b e tr a n s f o r m e d t o a p r e - e x is tin g c o - o r d i n a t e s y s te m in t h e a r e a b y m e a n s o f a s u f f ic ie n t n u m b e r o f c o n tr o l p o in ts . T h is te c h n iq u e is c a lle d a r e s e c tio n s o lu tio n o r fre e s ta tio n p o s itio n s u rv e y in g a n d is w id e ly u s e d in m a p p in g su rv e y in g T h e i n s tr u m e n ts , “ in te llig e n t” t h e o d o lite s c a lle d se lf - r e g is te r in g t a c h e o m e te r s o r “ t o t a l s ta tio n s ” , p e r f o r m t h e n e c e s s a r y o p e r a t i o n s , s a v in g d a t a i n t o i n t e r n a l r e g is te r in g u n its , o r in to e x te r n a l d a t a s to r a g e d e v ic e s . T y p ic a lly , r u g g e d iz e d la p to p s a r e u s e d a s d a ta c o lle c to r s f o r th is p u r p o s e . • TAPESCRIPT 10A FOUNDATIONS OF LOW-RISE BU ILDIN G S A ll f o u n d a tio n s m u st tra n s m it th e b u ild in g lo a d s to a stab le stra tu m o f e a r th . T h e r e a r e tw o c r ite r ia f o r sta b ility : firs t, t h e so il u n d e r th e f o u n d a tio n s s h o u ld b e a b le to re c e iv e th e im p o s e d lo a d w ith o u t m o r e t h a n a b o u t 2 .5 c e n tim e tr e s o f s e ttle m e n t a n d , s e c o n d , th e s e ttle m e n t s h o u ld b e u n if o r m u n d e r th e e n tir e b u ild in g . I t is also im p o r ta n t th a t th e b o tto m o f th e fo u n d a tio n b e b e lo w t h e m a x im u m w in te r fro s t le v e l W e t s o il e x p a n d s a s i t f re e z e s , a n d r e p e a te d TAPESCRIPTS 341 fre e z e - th a w c y c le s c a n m o v e th e b u ild in g u p a n d d o w n , le a d in g to p o s s ib le d is p la c e m e n t a n d d a m a g e . M a x im u m fro s t d e p t h v a rie s w ith c lim a te a n d t o p o g r a p h y I t c a n b e as d e e p a s 1.5 m e t r e s in co ld c o n tin e n ta l c lim a te s a n d is z e ro in tro p ic a l a n d s o m e s u b tro p ic a l a reas. T h e f o u n d a t i o n s y s te m s f o r l o w - r is e r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s a re s u i t a b l e f o r t h e i r lig h t lo a d s ; n e a r l y a ll a re s u p p o r t e d o n s p r e a d f o o t i n g s , w h i c h a re o f t w o ty p e s — c o n t i n u o u s f o o t i n g s t h a t s u p p o r t w alls a n d is o la te d p a d fo o tin g s t h a t s u p p o r t c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s . T h e f o o tin g s th e m s e l v e s a re u s u a lly m a d e o f c o n c r e t e p o u r e d d ir e c tly o n u n d is tu r b e d so il t o a m i n i m u m d e p t h o f a b o u t 30 c e n tim e tre s . F o u n d a tio n w alls c a n b e b u ilt o f re in fo rc e d c o n c re te o r m a s o n ry , p a r tic u la r ly c o n c r e te b lo c k . C o n c r e te b lo c k s a re o f a s ta n d a r d siz e la rg e r t h a n b ric k s a n d a re h o llo w , f o rm in g a g rid o f v e rtic a l p la n e s . T h e y a re th e le a s t e x p e n s iv e f o rm o f m a s o n ry — u s in g c h e a p b u t s tr o n g m a te r ia l — a n d t h e i r la rg e siz e e c o n o m iz e s o n t h e la b o u r re q u ir e d t o la y t h e m . T h e i r a p p e a r a n c e a n d w e a th e r in g p r o p e r tie s a re in f e r io r to th o s e o f fire d m a s o n ry , b u t th e y a re s a tis f a c to r y f o r f o u n d a tio n w alls, in s o m e p la c e s t im b e r fo u n d a tio n w alls a n d s p re a d fo o tin g s a re u s e d E x c a v a tio n fo r fo u n d a tio n s is th e m o s t h ig h ly m e c h a n iz e d o p e ra tio n in t h is b u ild in g ty p e ; it is d o n e a lm o s t e n tire ly w ith b u lld o z e rs a n d b a c k h o e s . • TAPESCRIPT 10B P IP E P ILES P i p e p ile s a re a ty p e o f ste e l d riv e n p ile f o u n d a tio n a n d a re a g o o d c a n d id a te f o r b a tte r e d p ile s . P i p e p ile s c a n b e d riv e n e i t h e r o p e n e n d o r c lo s e d e n d . W h e n d riv e n o p e n e n d , s o il is a llo w e d to e n t e r th e b o tto m o f th e p i p e o r t u b e . I f a n e m p ty p i p e is r e q u ire d , a j e t o f w a te r o r a n a u g e r c a n b e u s e d to re m o v e t h e so il in s id e fo llo w in g driv in g . C lo s e d e n d p i p e p ile s a re c o n s tru c te d b y co v e rin g th e b o tto m o f t h e p ile w ith a s te e l p la te o r c a s t s te e l s h o e . I n s o m e c a s e s , p i p e p ile s a re fille d w ith c o n c r e t e t o p r o v id e a d d itio n a l m o m e n t c a p a c ity o r c o r r o s io n r e s is ta n c e . 342 I Английский язы к для студентов строительных специально' тей I n th e U n ite d K in g d o m , th is is n o t g e n e ra lly d o n e in o r d e r to re d u c e th e c o st. I n th e s e c a s e s , c o rr o s io n p r o te c tio n is p ro v id e d b y a llo w in g fo r a s a c rific ia l th ic k n e s s o f s te e l o r b y a d o p tin g a h ig h e r g ra d e o f steel. I f a c o n c re te fille d p i p e p ile is c o rro d e d , m o s t o f th e lo a d c a rry in g c a p a c ity o f th e p ile w ill r e m a in i n t a c t d u e t o th e c o n c r e te , w h ile it w ill b e lo s t in a n e m p ty p i p e p ile . T h e stru c tu ra l c a p a c ity o f p ip e p ile s is p rim a rily c a lc u la te d b a s e d o n s te e l s tr e n g th a n d c o n c r e te s tre n g th ( i f fille d ). T h e th ic k n e s s o f th e s te e l c o n s id e re d fo r d e te rm in in g c a p a c ity is ty p ic a lly r e d u c e d b y 1 /1 6 in . c o m p a r e d t o th e a c tu a l p i p e t o a c c o u n t fo r c o rr o s io n . S te e l p i p e p ile s c a n e i t h e r b e n e w s te e l m a n u f a c tu r e d s p e c ific a lly fo r th e p ilin g in d u s tr y o r re c la im e d s te e l tu b u l a r c a s in g p re v io u s ly u s e d f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s s u c h as o il a n d g a s e x p lo r a tio n . • TAPESCRIPT 11A MASONRY WALLS S tru c tu r a l m a s o n r y w a lls a re p r im a r ily u s e d in m u ltis to re y e d b u ild in g s , w h e re t h e y o ffe r g re a te r l o a d - b e a r in g c a p a c ity a n d fire re s is ta n c e . B ric k a n d c o n c r e te b lo c k a re th e m a jo r m a te r ia ls , b ric k b e in g fa v o u re d fo r e x te r io r s u rfa c e s b e c a u s e o f its a p p e a r a n c e a n d d u ra b ility . S o lid b ric k w alls a re ra re ly u s e d d u e to t h e h ig h e r l a b o u r a n d m a te ria l co sts; c o m p o s ite w alls o f b ric k a n d b lo c k o r b lo c k a lo n e a re c o m m o n . C a v ity w alls a re u s e d in c o ld e r c lim a te s ; in th e s e , tw o w ith v e rtic a l la y e rs o f m a s o n ry a re b u ilt o n e ith e r sid e o f a la y e r o f rig id in s u la tio n . T h e w y th e s a re j o i n e d t o g e th e r b y s te e l r e in f o r c e m e n t th a t ru n s th ro u g h th e in s u la tio n a n d is la id in th e h o r iz o n ta l m a s o n ry jo i n t s a t in te rv a ls . C a v ity w a lls h a v e a h e a t- f lo w ra te t h a t is 50 p e r c e n t o f t h a t o f a so lid w a ll. T im b e r f lo o r a n d r o o f c o n s tr u c tio n , s im ila r to b a llo o n fra m in g , is u s e d w ith m a s o n ry c o n s tr u c tio n ; a n d th e r e is a lso s o m e u s e o f p r e c a s t p re s tre s s e d h o llo w c o n c r e te p a n e ls w h ic h a re f ir e p r o o f a n d c a n s p a n u p to n in e m e tre s . SUPPLEMEMARY READING 343 • TAPESCRIPT 11B VENEER MASONRY A m a s o n r y v e n e e r w a ll c o n s is ts o f m a s o n r y u n its , u s u a lly c la y b a s e d b r ic k s , in s ta lle d o n o n e o r b o t h s id e s o f a s tr u c tu r a lly i n d e p e n d e n t w a ll u s u a lly c o n s tr u c te d o f w o o d o r m a s o n r y . I n th is c o n te x t t h e b r ic k m a s o n r y is p r im a r ily d e c o r a tiv e , n o t s tr u c tu r a l. T h e b r ic k v e n e e r is g e n e ra lly c o n n e c te d to th e s tr u c tu r a l w all b y b n c k t i e s ( m e ta l s t r i p s t h a t a r e a t ta c h e d t o th e s t r u c tu r a l w a ll, as w ell a s t h e m o r t a r jo i n t s o f t h e b r ic k v e n e e r ) . T h e r e is ty p ic a lly a n a ir g a p b e tw e e n th e b r ic k v e n e e r a n d t h e s t r u c tu r a l w a ll. A s c la y b a s e d b r ic k is u su a lly n o t c o m p le te ly w a te r p r o o f , th e s tr u c tu r a l w a ll w ill o f te n h a v e a w a t e r - r e s is ta n t s u r f a c e ( u s u a lly t a r p a p e r ) a n d w e e p h o le s c a n b e le ft a t th e b a s e o f t h e b r ic k v e n e e r to d r a in m o is tu r e t h a t a c c u m u la te s in s id e th e a ir g a p . C o n c r e te b lo c k s , r e a l a n d c u l t u r e d s to n e s , a n d v e n e e r a d o b e a r e s o m e tim e s u s e d in a v e ry s im ila r v e n e e r f a s h io n . M o s t in s u la te d b u ild in g s t h a t u tiliz e c o n c r e t e b lo c k , b r ic k , a d o b e , s to n e , v e n e e r s o r s o m e c o m b in a tio n t h e r e o f fe a tu r e i n te r io r in s u la tio n in th e f o r m o f fib e rg la ss b a tts b e tw e e n w o o d e n w a ll stu d s o r in th e f o r m o f rig id in s u la tio n b o a r d s c o v e r e d w ith p l a s te r o r d ry w all. I n m o s t c lim a te s th is in s u la tio n is m u c h m o r e e ffe c tiv e o n th e e x te r io r o f t h e w a ll, a llo w in g t h e b u ild in g in t e r i o r t o ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d th e r m a l m a ss o f th e m a s o n ry . T h is te c h n i q u e d o e s , h o w e v e r , r e q u ir e s o m e s o r t o f w e a th e r - r e s is ta n t e x te r io r s u r f a c e o v e r th e in s u la tio n a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , is g e n e r a lly m o r e e x p e n siv e . • TAPESCRIPT 12A INTERIOR FIN ISHES OF RESIDEN TIAL BUILDIN GS I n t e r i o r f in is h e s a n d s p a c e - d iv is io n s y s te m s d e f in e th e liv in g s p a c e s w ith in re s id e n tia l b u ild in g s w ith a r a n g e o f b o t h n a tu r a l a n d s y n th e tic m a te r ia ls . T h e m o s t w id e ly u s e d w a ll f in is h is g y p s u m b o a r d , a p r e f a b r ic a te d fo rm o f t r a d itio n a l w e t p la s te r . W e t g y p s u m p la s t e r is c a s t b e tw e e n p a p e r f a c in g s to f o rm la rg e p a n e ls t h a t a r e 344 I Английский язы к для студентов строительных специальностей n a ile d to lig h t t im b e r o r m e ta l f r a m e w o rk s T h e jo in ts b e tw e e n th e p a n e ls a re fille d w ith a h a r d - s e ttin g re s in c o m p o u n d , g iv in g a s m o o th s eam less su rfa c e th a t h as c o n s id e ra b le fire resistan ce. G y p s u m b o a r d fo r m s th e s u b s tr a te to w h ic h a n u m b e r o f o t h e r m a te r ia ls , in c lu d in g t h i n w o o d - v e n e e r e d p ly w o o d a n d v in y l fa b ric s , c a n b e a p p lie d w ith a d h esiv es. I n w e t a re a s su c h as k itc h e n s a n d b a th r o o m s , w a te r - r e s is ta n t g y p s u m b o a r d is u s e d , s o m e tim e s w ith th e a d d itio n o f a d h e s iv e - a p p lie d c e r a m ic tile . D o o r s in r e s id e n tia l b u ild in g s a r e u s u a lly o f th e h o llo w , c o r e ty p e , w ith th in v e n e e r s o f w o o d g lu e d o v e r a h o n e y - c o m b p a p e r c o r e a n d s o lid w o o d e d g e s tr ip s : d o o r fra m e s a re ty p ic a lly m a d e o f m a c h in e d tim b e r s h a p e s . P la s tic la m in a te s b o n d e d to p a r tic le b o a r d a re e x te n s iv e ly u s e d f o r b u ilt- in c a b in e ts a n d c o u n te r to p s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n f lo o r f in is h is c a r p e tin g , m o s t o f w h ic h is n o w m a d e o f s y n th e tic f ib re s , d is p la c in g th e tr a d itio n a l w o o l a n d c o t t o n . I t c a n b e e a s ily m a in ta in e d a n d its s o ft v isu a l a n d ta c tile te x tu r e a s w ell a s its s o u n d - a b s o r b in g q u a litie s m a k e it a ttr a c tiv e f o r r e s id e n tia l u se . H a r d w o o d s — p r im a r ily o a k , b ir c h , a n d m a p le — a r e a ls o u s e d f o r flo o r s , b o t h in t h e tr a d i t i o n a l n a r r o w p la n k s n a ile d t o p ly w o o d d e c k s a n d as p re f a b r ic a te d p a r q u e t e le m e n ts w h ic h a r e a p p lie d w ith a d h e s iv e s . I n w e t o r h a r d - u s e a r e a s v in y l- c o m p o s itio n tile s o r c e r a m ic tile s a re u s e d . • TAPESCRIPT 12B PLASTER SLABS F o r p a r titio n s a n d c e ilin g s , p la s te r sla b s a re n o w in g e n e r a l u se w h e n w o r k h a s t o b e f in is h e d q u ic k ly . F o r c e ilin g s th e y r e q u ir e s im p ly to b e n a ile d to th e jo is ts , th e j o in ts b e in g m a d e w ith p la s te r, a n d th e w h o le f in is h e d w ith a t h i n s e ttin g c o a t. I n s o m e c a se s , w ith f ir e p r o o f flo o r s , f o r in s ta n c e , t h e sla b s a r e h u n g u p w ith w ire h a n g e rs so as to allo w a s p a c e o f se v e ra l in c h e s b e tw e e n th e so ffit o f th e c o n c r e te flo o r a n d th e c e ilin g . F o r p a r titio n s t h e slab s f r e q u e n tly h a v e th e e d g e s to n g u e d a n d g r o o v e d t o f o r m a b e t t e r c o n n e c t i o n ; o f te n , to o , th e y a re h o le d th r o u g h v e rtic a lly , so th a t, w h e n g r o u te d in w ith s e m i- f lu id p la s te r , th e w h o le p a r t i t i o n is b o u n d to g e th e r , SUPPLEMENTARY READING 345 as it w e re , w ith p la s te r d o w els. W h e re v ery g re a t s tre n g th is re q u ire d t h e w o rk m a y b e r e in f o r c e d b y s m a ll ir o n ro d s th r o u g h th e slab s. T h is f o rm s a v e ry s tr o n g a n d rig id p a r t i t i o n w h ic h is a t th e s a m e tim e fire -r e s is tin g a n d o f lig h tw e ig h t, a n d w h e n f in is h e d m e a s u re s o n ly fr o m tw o to f o u r i n c h e s (1 0 2 m m ) th ic k . T h e sla b s m a y b e o b ta in e d e i t h e r w ith a k e y e d s u rfa c e , w h ic h r e q u ire s f in is h in g w ith a s e ttin g c o a t w h e n th e p a r t i t i o n o r c e ilin g is in p o s itio n , o r a s m o o th fin is h e d fa c e , w h ic h m a y b e p a p e r e d o r p a i n t e d i m m e d ia te ly t h e jo i n t s h a v e b e e n c a r e f u lly m a d e . P a r titio n s a re a ls o fo rm e d w ith o n e o r o t h e r o f th e fo rm s o f m e ta l la th in g fix e d to ir o n u p rig h ts a n d p la s te re d o n b o t h sid es. S o s tro n g is th e re s u lt t h a t p a r titio n s o f th is c la s s o n ly tw o o r t h r e e in c h e s (76 m m ) th ic k w ere u se d fo r te m p o ra ry cells fo r p riso n e rs a t N e w g a te G a o l d u rin g th e r e b u ild in g o f th e n e w s e s s io n s h o u s e in th e O ld B a ile y in L o n d o n . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Пособие по английскому языку для инженерно-строи­ тельных и архитектурных вузов / А.И. Бурлак [и др.]. — М: Высшая школа, 1975. 2. Пособие по английскому языку для студентов II—III кур­ сов строительных вузов / Е.В. Горбунова [и др.]. — М.: Высшая школа, 1978. 3. Камминг Дж. Английский язык для студентов архитек­ турных и строительных специальностей. — М: Астрель, ACT, 2004. 4. Поздняков А.А., Быков В.В. Англо-русский словарь по строительству и новым технологиям. — М.: Русский язык, 2003. 5. Английский язык для инженеров / Т.Ю. Полякова [и др.]. — М.: Высшая школа, 2007. 6. Турук И. Ф. Английский язык. Грамматические основы чтения специального текста. — М.: МГУЭСИ, 2006. 7. Bordman М. In the USA. — London: Chancerel, 1999. 8. Children’s Britannica Encyclopaedia, 1996. 9. Hewitt K. Understanding Britain. — Oxford: Perspective, 2000. 10. KumarS. Building Construction. — Delhi: Standard, 1988. 11. Kurtz J- -P Dictionary of Civil Engineering. — N .Y.: Plenum Publishers, 2004. 12. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. — Harlow: Longman, 2005. 13. Murphy R. English Gram m ar in Use for Intermediate Students. — Cambridge: CU P, 2004. 14. New Civil Engineering International [Journal], L, 2003 — 2010. 15. New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. 16. Oxford Guide to British and American Culture for Learners of English / / Edited by J. Crowther . — Oxford: OUP, 2005. LIBLIOGRAPHY 347 17. Reader’s Digest: How Was It Done? The Story of Human Ingenuity through the Ages. — London: The Reader’s Association, 2000. 18. Swan M., Waller C. How English Works. A Gramm ar Practice Book. — Oxford: OUP, 2002. 19. Vaughan-Rees M. In Britain. — London: Chancerel, 1997. 20. White L. Engineering Workshop. — Oxford: OUP, 2003. 21. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia [Интернет-ресурс]. — Режим доступа: http://en.wikipedia.org. CONTENTS Преди словие.............................................................................................................. 3 UNIT 1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION...............................................................6 UNIT 2. GREAT C IVIL EN G IN EER S............................................................... 29 UNIT 3. JOBS IN CONSTRUCTION.................................................................49 UNIT 4. A LIVING PLAC E....................................................................................71 UNIT 5. BUILDING M ATERIALS...................................................................... 93 UNIT 6. BUILDING SCIENCE..........................................................................119 UNIT 7. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS................................................................143 UNIT 8. STRUCTURAL EN GINEERING..................................................... 167 UNIT 9. SURVEYING...........................................................................................189 UNIT 10. FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS................................................ 212 UNIT 11. BUILDING THE W ALLS................................................................233 UNIT 12. FINISHING THE IN S ID E ............................................................ 255 SUPPLEMENTARY READING............................................................................276 TA P ES C R IP TS ..........................................................................................................326 B ib lio g ra p h y ..........................................................................................................346 С ер и я «Вы сш ее образование» Г а р а гу л я С е р ге й И в а н о в и ч А НГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СТРОИТЕЛЬНЫХ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ Learning Building Construction in English О тветственны й з а вы пуск Корректор Худож ник В е р стк а : Кузнецов В. Семенова О. Тимофеева Е. Патулова А. Сдано в набор 28 01 2011 г. Подписано в печать 25.07 2011 г Формат 84 х 108 1/ 32 Бумага типографская. Гарнитура Times Тираж 2 500 Заказ № 312 О О О «Ф ен и кс» 3 4 4 0 8 2 , г. Ростов-на-Д ону, пер. Халтур и н ски й , 8 0 Отпечатано с готовых диапозитивов в ЗАО «Книга». 344019, г Ростов-на-Дону, ул. Советская, 57