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e
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42
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hecbn
hjwt´
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l
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ı
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rjywthn
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IV
I
43
a UÚ
W
<erdf Ú yt ghjbpyjcbncz b yt gjkexftncz ybrfrjq
jukfcjdrb> tckb tq ghtlitcndetn ukfcyfz f.
Ghbvth%
h :דוגמה
Q
Ú‚¯ ˜¯
Wk-
∫¯Ӈ ‡¯˜
k.®/ªkkkk%k
³
k
³ /
³
/
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Q
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¶ k
%
­+k
k*
x
º ­
W
W
:דוגמה
øÔÂÓÈÏ ıÈÓ ‰ˆÂ¯ ‰˙‡ ¨ÔÂȈ
Æ≥
h UkV
W U UV
h UkV
Wkk W UV
Æ
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;.h.
‰ «
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Œ
v.h.
‰ «
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‰„ÈÁÈ
IV
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
h UV
W UkV
44
‰Ï‡ ÌȯÂË· ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ÔÓ ˙Âχ˘ ÌΈ¯Î ¯Ӈ
®‡
Æ¥
Cjcnfdmnt djghjcs gentv gjl,jhf cjjndtncnde/ob[ ckjd d lde[ cnjk,wf[.
ÔÂȈ Ï˘ ‰@fiÚÒ
Ÿ Ó
œ ‰
Ã
➠
X
h Vh
:דוגמה
®·
Pflfqnt lheu lheue djghjcs b jndtnmnt yf yb[.
h
h
J,dtlbnt rhe;rjv ctvfybxtcrb xe;thjlyjt ckjdj.
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
45
ÆÂÚ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘
®‚
h
h
ÆÍÈÈ˘ ‡Ï ‰Ó Ï‚ÈÚ· ÂÓÒ
XX X
®‡
Æμ
:דוגמה
XX X Q_ X X X QZ
XX X Q`
XXXw Q[
XXX Qa
XXX Q\
XXX Qb
X XX Q]
XXX QZY
XX X Q^
ס
צ
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ק
ץ
Ú
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ע
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ı
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ס
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צ
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˜ÈÒ˜ÓUk%
Q
ÆÌÈËÙ˘Ó Â·˙ΠÌȇ˙Ó‰ ÏÚÂÙ‰ ˙‡ ¯Á·
Æ∑
‰„ÈÁÈ
Ds,thbnt ghfdbkmysq ukfujk b yfgbibnt ghtlkj;tybz.
IV
W_____________
W___________
W ___________
W _________
W ___________
QZ
Q[
Q\
Q]
Q^
W‰˙¢
:דוגמה
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Æ˙„ÓÂÏ Â‡ „ÓÂÏ ¨‰ˆ«¯
fi ¨‰ˆ«¯
Œ ¨‰˙«˘
'
¨‰˙«˘
46
øÔ‡Ï
®±
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
47
ÆÆÆÏŸ
øÔ‡
fi ÏŸ
®‡
Æ∏
Pflfqnt lheu lheue djghjcs b jndtnmnt yf yb[.
WWW
h
ÆÂÚ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘
h
h
h
h
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‰„ÈÁÈ
IV
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
h
48
Ljgjkybnt lbfkjub> bcgjkmpez cktle/obt ckjdf b ahfps.
ÌÂÏ˘
˙‡¯˙‰Ï
ÚÓ˘ ‰Ó
Ú‚¯ ˜¯
„Â‡Ó ÌÈÚ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
hUV
hU V
h U V
WV
W___________V
Q
‰ÁÈÏÒ
Q
hV
WV
W____________UV
Q
W V
W______________V
Q
Q
hU V
WV
W___________U V
IV
I
49
‰„Â˙
W V
W____________V
W„Â‡Ó ÌÈÚUV
W U V
h V
hV
W__________U UV
W V
‰„ÈÁÈ
Æ˙ÂÁÈ˘· ÌÈÈÂËÈ·‰ ˙‡ ˆ·˘
Q
Ʊ≥
.III
e
l
Ʊ∞
lllll0ll
Q
llll l
Kbxyst vtcnjbvtybz.
Æ
Æ Ø ÆÊ
ÆÊ
;.h.
;.h.#v.h.
v.h.
‡»‰
tl.x.
l
¿ ®
l
l
Q
ÆÛ‚‰ ˙ÂÓ˘
®‡
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ÆÈ
»Á
Ÿ Ç
⁄
Ì˙‡
̉
vy. x. Ư
‰„ÈÁÈ
IV
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Ô˙‡
Ô‰
50
ÆÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜Â Û‚‰ ˙ÂÓ˘ ˙‡ ·˙Î
®·
Pfrjyxbnt ghtlkj;tybz> bcgjkmpez ghfdbkmyst kbxyst vtcnjbvtybz.
W __________W QZ
W _________W Q[
W ___________W Q\
W__________W Q]
W __________W Q^
h V Q_
W __________V
h________UV Q`
WV
h ___________U V Qa
W UV
h ____________U V Qb
W UV
h__________UV QZY
;.h. Æ
v.h. ÆÊ
W
³ V
ÆÈ
tl.x.
˙«¯‚fi
ÌÈX‚fi
˙«
ÌÈ ;.h.
Æ
vy. x.
v.h.
Ư
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
51
«
tl.x.
ÆÈ
hV
W
h V
Wl
V
vy. x.
Ư
øÌÈDÓ«Ï
Ÿ
Ì˙‡ ‰Ó
ÆÊ
˙«„Ó«Ï
Ÿ
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Ÿ
˙«
øÌ˘ ¯‚ ÈÓ
ÌÈ «
hU
W U
h
U
W
h
W U
h
c
c
c
c
c
c
®‡
®·
Ʊ≤
Æ®· ±≤≠Ï ˙ÂÓ„ ˙ÂÁÈ˘ ÂÊÈÁÓ‰
®‚
Bycwtybheqnt lbfkjub> gj[j;bt yf lbfkjub d 12 ! > bcgjkmpez lheubt bvtyf b
ckjdf> rfr gjrfpfyj yb;t%
Crf;bnt%
Dvtcnj%
Crf;bnt%
UU U
UUlU
¹
U
W U
∫̘ӷ
∫¯Ӈ
∫̘ӷ
∫¯Ӈ
QZ
Q[
øÌȯ˘ ̉ ‰Ó
hW
W Ul
³
h
W
h
W W
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c
c
c
c
c
c
ƉÓ„ ‰ÁÈ˘ ÂÊÈÁÓ‰
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Bycwtybheqnt gj[j;bq lbfkju> bcgjkmpez
lheubt bvtyf.
Dvtcnj%
Crf;bnt%
UU U ∫̘ӷ
UUlU
¹
∫¯Ӈ
‰„ÈÁÈ
IV
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Dvtcnj%
52
ÆÌΈ¯Î ÂÚ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘ ¨˙‚ÂÊ· ‡¯˜
Ʊ¥
Ghjxnbnt cktle/ott eghf;ytybt dvtcnt c lheubv extybrjv> pflfqnt lheu lheue
djghjcs b jndtnmnt yf yb[.
ÏÚÕȲ Ï˘
@ÚfiÒ
Ÿ Ó
œ ‰
Ã
;.h.
Æ
v.h.
ÆÊ
˙«ˆ«¯
ÌȈ«¯
œ
˙«
«
ÌÈ «
tl.x. ÆÈ
vy. x. Ư
h X
h X
h X
h X
˜ÁˆÈ Ï˘ ˜Ò«ÈO‰
Ã
:דוגמות
øÌȈ¯ Ì˙‡ ‰Ó ≠
Æ„ÏÂ˜Â˘ ≠
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
53
ø˙Â˙¢ Ô‰ ‰Ó ≠
ƉϘ ‰˜Â˜ ≠
Ecnfyjdbnt cjjndtncndbt vt;le ghtlkj;tybzvb b
bkk/cnhfwbzvb.
W V hx
W x V h x
Q
Q
ÆÌȯÂÈ‡Ï ÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ ÂÓȇ˙‰
Ʊμ
W V h x
W U V hx
Q
Q
ÆÌȇ˙Ó‰ Û‚‰ Ì˘ ˙¯ÊÚ· ÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ ÂÓÈÏ˘‰
®‡
Ʊ∂
Pfrjyxbnt ghtlkj;tybz> dcnfdbd cktle/obt kbxyst vtcnjbvtybz%
Ô‰ ‡ ̉ ¨Ô˙‡ ¨ÂÁ‡
W ________W
h _________U c
h ________U c
W________W
W _________V
h UV
Yfgbibnt%
:דוגמה
QZ
Q[
Q\
Q]
Q^
» ‡ » ·˙Î
llkk ll
‰„ÈÁÈ
IV
®·
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
W ̉W
54
‰È²ˆKȻӫ˜
Ÿ
½Â ‰‚»Ú
Wl
h
W
h
W U
hU U
WW
h W
h U h W
h W
W
W W U
h
W W
W
Ʊ∑
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
U c
W :דוגמה
Yfgbibnt> xnj ds pyftnt j%
Ghbvth%
ÆÌȯÒÁ‰ ÌÈÏÚÙ‰ ˙‡ ·˙Î
Dcnfdmnt ytljcnf/obt ukfujks%
;.h. vy.x.
Ư ÆÊ
UU
v.h. vy.x.
Ư ÆÊ
UU
;. h.
Æ
UU
ÆÊ
v.h.
UU
Q
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
55
UU
UU
UU
UU
Q
k
¿
k
kxk
UU
UU
UU
UU
Q
Ʊ∏
ÆÌÈËÏ˘ ≤ „ÂÚ Â·˙Π‡¯˜
Ʊπ
‰„ÈÁÈ
IV
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Ghjxnbnt kjpeyub b yfgbibnt tot ldf kjpeyuf.
56
°ÈÈ· ¨‰ÏÏ‡È Ê‡
Ɖ˘Ó ‰˘Ó ‡È‰
Æ˙Ú‚Â˘Ó ‡È‰
Ɖ˘Ó ‡Ï ‡È‰
ø˙‡Ê ÈÓ
ø‰˘È‡ ‡ ˘È‡ ‰Ê
Yfgbibnt gbcmvtyyst ,erds> rjnjhst ds pyftnt.
ÆÌÈÚ„ÂÈ Ì˙‡˘ ·˙Ή ˙ÂÈ˙‡ ˙‡ ·˙Î
UV­UV ³ UVUV
UV
U5UV
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
57
UVlUVUV
U?UVkUVUV
UVUV,UVkUV
¹
UEUV­UV3
V UV
¿
¹
x
Ʊ∂
ÈÂ˘Ï‰ ¯ˆÂ‡‰
Ckjdfhysq pfgfc
ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ¯ˆÂ‡
Ckjdfhm
Byjcnhfyyst ckjdf
Ceotcndbntkmyst
k
%
QYWWR
·
QWR
l
QWRl
QWR
QYWWR³!
lk
QWR/
k
QYWWRk k
QWRk%
QWRkk
"k
vfntvfnbrf
cneltyn#rf
cfkfn
rjvveybrfwbz
rjywthn
rjrf-rjkf
rbjcr
ijrjkfl
j-rtq
l
h
º
Kl
³
k
­kx
%
+
xnj cksiyj*#rfr ltkf*
ghtrhfcyj
jxtym ghbznyj
bpdbybnt # ghjcnbnt
dtctkbnmcz
ytvyjuj
njkmrj
QWR
htcnjhfy
QWRl
rtrc
.UQWR
ujhjl#f
*
UQWR
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abkmv#s
QWR-
vjvtyn
QWRl
heccrbq zpsr
Kbxyst vtcnjbvtybz
Djghjcbntkmyst ckjdf
vs
vj;tn ,snm
QWR
cjr
Hfpyjt
k*UQWR
-
cnhfyf#s
QWWWRl
h
relf*
QWRl
jy
Utjuhfabxtcrbt yfpdfybz
Ujhjlf
Lheubt
k%k
Bthecfkbv ­l
¿ ­
Lbcytqktyl
Njrbj
Cbyfq
Ukfujks
Cke;t,yst ckjdf
ltkftn
[jxtn
gmtn
Cnhfys
xk
¸
k
k
¸
r
c
WWW
Tubgtn
Vt[brj
Rbnfq
Bhfr
Rtybz
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k%
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#
³
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IV
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
QYWWR
‘ktrnhjybrf
Ƈ
58
Uhfvvfnbxtcrbt ntvs
Vjhajkjubz%
ÌÈÈÂ˘Ï‰ Ìȇ˘Â‰ Æ·
U U UQERc
Ukfujk% vjltkm cghz;tybz gffkm (E) > $wtkst$ rjhyb> yfcnjzott
dhtvz> vyj;tcndtyyjt xbckj> ve;crjq b ;tycrbq hjl
Ghbvth%
c
˙„ÓÂÏ ¨ÌÈ„ÓÂÏ :דוגמה
V U U KU
Ukfujk% vjltkm cghz;tybz f - gffkm (E) >
rjhyb nbgf K > yfcnjzott
dhtvz> vyj;tcndtyyjt xbckj>
ve;crjq b ;tycrbq hjl
Ghbvth%
˙¯‚ ¨Ìȯ‚ :דוגמה
V UKU
Vjltkm cghz;tybz - gffkm (E) >
rjhyb nbgf K > yfcnjzott dhtvz
Ghbvth%
˙ˆ¯ ¨ÌȈ¯ ¨‰ÀˆÂ¯ ¨‰ŒˆÂ¯ :דוגמה
Cbynfrcbc% ghtlkjub ghtabrcs -
Djghjcbntkmyjt ckjdj -
Uhfvvfnbxtcrbt pfvtxfybz
ÌœÚ ¨ ÆÆÆÏŸ V
c
øÔ‡ÏV
˙ÂÈÂ˘Ï ˙¯ډ Æ‚
WmV
Xnj,s eghjcnbnm ntve j ghtlkjut-ghtabrct m> d yfcnjzotv hfpltkt
ghtlcnfdktys njkmrj tuj yfb,jktt hfcghjcnhfytyyst jukfcjdrb.
‰„ÈÁÈ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
I
59
˙È· Ûχ‰
μ
Cjukfcyst
,
r
g
‰„ÈÁÈ
ÌȯˆÈÚ
V a V5
V k V ?
V t V E
Q UR P
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veptjy
vbigf[f´
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cegthvfhrtn
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gj
gjkbnbrf
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kl
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k
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Ckjdfhm
60
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t
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‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
61
°Ú‚W ˜U
h
W
hKK
W
WWW-+U
5
Æ
;.h.
v.h.
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V
ÌÏÂÚ‰ ÏkfiœÓ ÌÈË„ÂËÒ
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Wl/kEW
5
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Wk
WEª WEª
k.k
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WkEWkE
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62
ÆÌÈÓ„ ÌËÙ˘Ó Â¯Ó‡
Crf;bnt ghtlkj;tybz> gj[j;bt yf ghbdtltyyst dsit.
1. Bpvtybnt yfpdfybz cnhfy b zpsrjd. Æ˙ÂÙ˘‰
2. Bcgjkmpeqnt kbxyst vtcnjbvtybz.
˙ÂÓ˘ ˙‡Â ˙ˆ¯‡‰ ˙ÂÓ˘ ˙‡ ¢
ÆÛ‚‰ ˙ÂÓ˘· ¢Ó˙˘‰
®·
Ʊ
Æ≤
WXXXXX XX
כ
פ
ב
Ù
t
פ
פ ב
ב
Î
k
כ
כ
ב
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Ù
a
ב
ב
פ
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¨
¨
¨
¨
¨
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
IV
63
øÆÆÆ˘È
®‡
Æμ
˘È
‰„ÈÁÈ
Jndtnmnt yf djghjcs cj ckjdjv
¢˘È¢ .
Æ¢˘È¢ ‰ÏÈÓ‰ ÌÚ ˙Âχ˘‰ ÏÚ ÂÚ
h V
WUV
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˙Â˘È ˙¯Ȅ
ÌÈ·ÂË ÌȯÂÓ
˘„Á „ÈÓÏ˙ :דוגמות
‰ÙÈ ‰¯ÂÁ·
øÂÏȇ øÂÊȇ ø‰Êȇ
Djghjcbntkmyst ckjdf%
Uhfvvfnbxtcrfz cdjlrf
Ceaabrcs ceotcndbntkmys[ ;tycrjuj hjlf tlbycndtyyjuj xbckf
∫ÈÂ˘Ï ÌÂÎÈÒ
˙ÂÈÂ˘Ï ˙¯ډ Æ‚
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WU U WZ
W
Dj vyjub[ ckjdf[ ghb lj,fdktybb ckjuf lkz j,hfpjdfybz ajhvs vyj;tcndtyyjuj
xbckf elfhtybt gthtvtoftncz yf gjcktlybq ckju. D nfrb[ ckjdf[ ukfcyfz>
yfb,jktt elfktyyfz jn elfhyjuj ckjuf> ectrftncz.
´ - Uljkf>
´
´ Uljkjn
´
Yfghbvth% Ufljkm
Uljkbv>
˙«Ï«„Ÿ‚ ¨ÌÈÏ«„Ÿ‚ ¨‰Ï«„Ÿ‚ ¨Ï«„‚Àc
W U U UU U W[
h h h c
D cjdhtvtyyjv bdhbnt d ,snjds[ hfpujdjhf[> d ufptnf[ b byjulf d rybuf[> lkz
j,hfpjdfybz ajhv ;tycrjuj hjlf b vyj;tcndtyyjuj xbckf bcgjkmpetncz
!cv. ghbvths dsit@.
¯ÂÚÈ˘
≤
D bvtyys[ ghtlkj;tybz[> rjulf d hjkb crfpetvjuj dscnegftn ceotcndbntkmyjt>
vt;le gjlkt;fobv b crfpetvsv bvttncz ukfujk-cdzprf.
c
Yfghbvth%
crfpetvjt
cdzprf
gjlkt;fott
Ɖ˜È˙Ú ¯ÈÚ ‡È‰ ‰È¯ÒȘ
W VÔ‰ ¨Ì‰ ¨‡È‰ ¨‡Â‰V
Ukfujk-cdzprf - Ô‰ ¨Ì‰ ¨‡È‰ ¨‡Â‰ dctulf cjukfcetncz c gjlkt;fobv d hjlt b xbckt.
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
W U U W\
138
≥
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±∞≠± ¯ÎÊ· ÌÈÂÓ ÌȯÙÒÓ
Rjkbxtcndtyyst xbckbntkmyst - ve;crjq hjl
5
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139
Ghjbpytcbnt dcke[ cktle/obt ceotcndbntkmyst dj vyj;tcndtyyjv xbckt& pfntv
yfgbibnt b[ c xbckbntkmysvb jn 1 lj ltcznb.
UU U UU U UUUUU UUU
U U
¨ÌÈÂÓÈÏ È˘ ¨„Á‡ ËÏÒ :דוגמה
Ʊ
ÆÌȯÙÒÓ‰ ˙‡ ¯Ӈ ‡¯˜
Ghjxnbnt b yfpjdbnt dcke[ xbckbntkmyst.
®‡
Æ≤
ø‰ÏŒÂÚ
³ ‰Ê ‰ÓÎ
h WUh W^-
WU99
µ EV
h9
¸
² V
h W UV
WbV
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®·
Pflfqnt lheu lheue cktle/obq djghjc b jndtnmnt yf ytuj.
ø‰ÏÂÚ ‰Ê ‰ÓÎ ≠ :דוגמה
ÆÌÈϘ˘ ∂ ≠
ZY
_
^
`
V
V
V
P
V
b V
QIIRø‰Ú
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h V
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hUV
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W²
140
ÆÂÚ ø‰Ú˘‰ ‰Ó ≠ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘ ¨‰Ú˘ ¯Á·
Ds,thbnt rfrjt-nj dhtvz> pflfqnt lheu lheue djghjc ø‰Ú˘‰ ‰Ó > b jndtnmnt yf ytuj
[c^^
[c^Y
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bcZY
ac^^
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W dW
U VW
W W
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Õ ˘
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Jgbibnt gj rfhnbyrt ljv d Rtqcfhbb.
Q
¶
· ®
º k
¹
¶
º R
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±πππ≠· ‰È¯ÒȘ· ˙È·
Bcgjkmpeqnt d cdjtv jgbcfybb cktle/obt ckjdf%
mU U
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≥
141
c
? + tlbycndtyyjt xbckj ceotcndbntkmyjuj
≠ÏkÀ
#² 5
²
ÏkÀ
˙aÀע ÏkÀ
h
W
h
WUW
„ÈÁÈ· ÌˆÚ Ì˘ ´ ÏkÀ
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-
-
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³ ÏÎ
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W
W*² 5
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≥
QcUU R ¢ÌÈX·
Õ ⁄Á χT
Õ ◊
" È Ïk¢
À
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Ckjdj
142
Æ˙·˘ ÏÎ ¨ÌÂÈ ÏÎ ¨¯˜Â· ÏÎ ÌÈ˘ÂÚ Ì˙‡ ‰Ó ·˙Î
®·
Yfgbibnt> xnj ds ltkftnt rf;ljt enhj> rf;lsq ltym> rf;le/ ce,,jne.
W
®‡
ÌÈϘ˘ ≤ – ¯ÙÒ ÏÎ
h W
c
Wt c
W h
5
c
W c
W W5+
c
ÆÌÈ˘ÓÂ˘Ó ÌȘÒÈ„Ï ˙ÂÁ· ‰Ó„ ‰ÁÈ˘ ·˙Î
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≥
143
Yfgbibnt fyfkjubxysq lbfkju> ghjbc[jlzobq d vfufpbyt gjlth;fyys[ lbcrjd.
®·
Æ∂
∫ÌÈÏÈÓ· ¢Ó˙˘‰ ÆÌȇ˙Ó‰ Û¯Ȉ‰ ˙‡ ˆ·˘
Pfgjkybnt ghj,tks d ghtlkj;tybz[> gjkmpezcm
ckjdfvb bp cktle/otuj cgbcrf%
XX XXXX
W ¯˜Â· ÏÎ
W
:דוגמה
U
WZ
W U U
W[
WbcYYV W acYYV
W\
WPK
W
Ghjxnbnt lbfkju dcke[> yfpsdfz xbckbntkmyst
Æ∑
W]
W^
ÆÌȯÙÒÓ‰ ˙‡ ¯Ӈ Ï˜· ‰ÁÈ˘‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜
Æ∏
W W ‰È¯ËÈÙ˜ ¨‰ÈÊÈÂÂÏË ¨‰ËÈÓ c
Gjvybnt% ‰È¯ËÈÙ˜ ¨‰ÈÊÈÂÂÏË ¨‰ËÈÓ - ‘nj ceotcndbntkmyst ;tycrjuj hjlf. Dct jcnfkmyst
ceotcndbntkmyst d ‘njv lbfkjut - ve;crjuj hjlf.
‰ÈŸÒ
à Ÿ ·
à ah
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
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c
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h U
hW
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hh
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h
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144
Ú„ÈÈ· ¯‡Â˙ Ì˘ ÔÈ·Â ÌˆÚ Ì˘ ÔÈ· ‰Ó‡˙‰
Cjukfcjdfybt vt;le ceotcndbntkmysv b ghbkfufntkmysv d gjcnfyjdrt jghtltktyyjuj fhnbrkz.
W
WWW
ÆÒÙÈPˆ ·‰Â‡ Ô˘‰ „Ïȉ
ÆÆÆ Ô˘‰ „Ïȉ
®‡
Æπ
‰ÁÈÏÒ
h² E
?U
W U
W
W
-
Æ˙ÂÓ„ ˙ÂÁÈ˘ È˙˘ ·˙Î
®·
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egjnht,kzz cktle/obt ckjdf%
c
Uc[ UcZ
Ghjxnbnt cktle/obt ghtlkj;tybz b ljgjkybnt
yjdst ghtlkj;tybz> egjnht,kzz jghtltktyysq fhnbrkm.
ÆÏ„‚‰ ÔÁÏ¢‰
W
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≥
145
W
ÆÚ„ÈÈ ÂÙÈÒ‰ ÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜
W
Ʊ∞
:דוגמה
W WZ
W W[
W
WW\
W
W W]
W
W W^
W
WW_
W
W W`
W
W Wa
W U
W U Wb
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‡ÒÈÎ
ÔÁÏ¢
‰ËÈÓ
QZYVaPR
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Ã
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Ã
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Õ ‰
Ã
Ʊ±
‰Ê‰ ‡ÒÈΉ
hV
WV
h V
W V
˙‡Ê‰ ‰¯È„‰
¯ÂÚÈ˘
≥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
hV
WV
h V
W V
146
‰Ï‡‰ ÌȯÂȈ‰
h W-
øÈÓ Ï˘
ÆÂÚ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘
Pflfqnt lheu lheue djghjcs b lfqnt jndtns gj cktle/otve j,hfpwe.
hV
WV
ԉΠԄ
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≥
147
:דוגמה
®·
·‚ŒŒÃa Ô‡ÊÂÓ
®‡
Ʊ≤
W+
t 5UU
W ² d
* W
² W
W U W
W .d
W U
W
ÆÈ„· ω‡· ®X© Ôȇ ‰Ó ®V© ˘È ‰Ó ÂÓÒ ¯Ӈ
®·
Yfpjdbnt dcke[ b jnvtnmnt yf ,evfut> xnj tcnm !V@ d ,tlebycrb[ gfkfnrf[> b xtuj d yb[ ytn !X@.
ÆÔ‰ÈÏÚ ÂÚ ËҘˉ ÏÚ ˙Âχ˘ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘
®‚
Pflfqnt lheu lheue djghjcs gj ntrcne b jndtnmnt yf yb[.
øˉ¯ ‰Ùȇ ≠ :דוגמה
ÆÚ·˘ ¯‡· „ÈÏ ·‚· ˉ¯ ≠
WUUUU ∫‰Ï‡˘‰ ˙ÂÏÈÓ· ¢Ó˙˘‰ ÆËҘˉ ÏÚ ˙Âχ˘ μ ·˙Î
®„
¯ÂÚÈ˘
≥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Yfgbibnt 5 djghjcjd gj ntrcne> bcgjkmpez cktle/obt djghjcbntkmyst ckjdf.
148
°ÈÈ· ¨‰ÏÏ‡È Ê‡
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≥
149
ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ¯ˆÂ‡
Ckjdfhysq pfgfc
Ukfujks
Ceotcndbntkmyst
gfkfnrf#b
ujcnbybwf
cbyfujuf#b
ve;xbyf#s
vbyenf#s
ltym#lyb
cnek#cnekmz
rhjdfnm
ckjdj#ckjdf
vtcnj#vtcnf
gbnf !dbl [kt,f@
vt,tkm
rjdth#rjdhs
itrtkm#b
² UQWR
²
QWR©
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· 5UQWR
?
5
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UQWR
©
²
²
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QWR
UQWR
² ² UQWR
²
QWR
µ E
QWR*
UQWR
º
µ
UQWR
º
#
¸
²
· ²
«
²
tcn
cblbn
uekztn
cnjbn
Ghbkfufntkmyst
lheujq#fz> byjq#fz
-
U
vzcyjq#fz
.x
µ 5U.x
µ 5
vjkjxysq#fz
U
bphfbkmcrbq#fz
*
xU
º
*
x
º ­
Xbckbntkmyst - ve;.hjl
Hfpyjt
dct#rf;lsq#k/,jq
xnj-nj#xnj-yb,elm
tot
,jkmijt cgfcb,j
V?
9
¸
²
5+²
Byjcnhfyyst ckjdf
[evec
rfcgjvfn
,tleby#rf
QWR 99
QWRkE
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­ 5U
­ 5
jlby
ldf
nhb
xtnsht
gznm
itcnm
ctvm
djctvm
ltdznm
ltcznm
nsczxf#nsczxb
gznmltczn
cnj#cjnyb
ltdzyjcnj
VºU­
º
µ ²
º
5/
µ
µ
¹
¹
²
º
º
¹
*x
µ
UQWR
¹
² QWR
º
¹
¯ÂÚÈ˘
≥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
150
ÌÈÈÂ˘Ï‰ Ìȇ˘Â‰
Uhfvvfnbxtcrbt ntvs
Cbynfrcbc%
V
Jghtltktyysq fhnbrkm ljk;ty ,snm b e ceotcndbntkmyjuj> b e ghbkfufntkmyjuj.
¨Ô˘‰ „Ïȉ
‰Ê‰ ˙È·‰
+ ceotcndbntkmyjt d tlbycndtyyjv xbckt
Æ·
c
:דוגמות
tT
ÌÂÈ ÏÎ :דוגמה
c
Hfpyjt%
rjkbxtcndtyyst xbckbntkmyst ve;crjuj hjlf
±∞≠±V
Rjnjhsq xfc* QIIR ø‰Ú˘‰ ‰Ó
˙ÂÈÂ˘Ï ˙¯ډ Æ‚
Uhfvvfnbxtcrbt pfvtxfybz
c[ U ZU
WZ
Nfr ;t> rfr b d ;tycrjv hjlt> d ve;crjv rjkbxtcndtyyjt xbckbntkmyjt
jlby cnfyjdbncz gjckt ceotcndbntkmyjuj> f ldf - cjrhfoftncz%
W
º t
º
c
Ceaabrc ´ egjnht,kztncz lkz
ghtdhfotybz ceotcndbntkmyjuj d ghbkfufntkmyjt
W UUU
W U U U
c
U
W
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≥
151
Yj tuj ytkmpz lj,fdkznm fdnjvfnbxtcrb> nfr rfr pfxfcne/
ceotcndbntkmyjt ghb ‘njv vtyztn cdj/ ajhve.
Yfghbvth%
WVUVU V c
W
W
D nfrb[ ckexfz[ d ajhvt vyj;tcndtyyjuj xbckf egjnht,kztncz njkmrj
jlby qel.
Yfghbvth%
WUU Uc
W[
¥
ÌȯÙÒ ˙ÂÁ·
W
¾ E
W
m
W? U
m
m
m
W UU
W
h W
W U
W
®‡
Ʊ
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
h
Ɖ˜ÈÊÂÓ ˙ÂÁ· ‰Ó„ ‰ÁÈ˘ ·˙Π¯Ӈ
®·
Ghblevfqnt fyfkjubxysq lbfkju d
vepsrfkmyjv vfufpbyt - ghjbpytcbnt
tuj dcke[ b pfntv pfgbibnt.
WUW
¯ÂÚÈ˘
¥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
W
W²
¯ÙÒ‰ ˙‡
Œ
¯ÂÚÈ˘
152
h*?V
W WV
®‡
·‰Â‡
W˙‡
¯ÈkœÓ
Ã
ÌÈ·‰Â‡
W ˙‡
ÌȯÈÎÓ
…˙‡ ·‰Â‡ ȇ
ÆÌÈ ˘Ó˘ ·‰Â‡ ȇ
ÆÌÁ ÏÙ‡ÏÙ ·‰Â‡ ȇ
¨‰ÈÁË ÒÂÓÂÁ ·‰Â‡ ȇ
Ɖȯ ÆÆÆ ˙‡ ·‰Â‡ ȇÂ
Yfgbibnt> xnj ds k/,bnt.
¯ÂÚÈ˘
ÆÆÆ˙·‰Â‡ ȇ
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
¥
153
ÆÌÈ·‰Â‡ Ì˙‡ ‰Ó ·˙Î
ÆÆÆ·‰Â‡ ȇ
®·
Æ≤
ÆÍȯˆ ̇ ¢˙‡¢ ÂÙÈÒ‰ ÌÈËÙ˘Ó Â¯Ó‡
Crf;bnt cktle/obt ahfps> bcgjkmpez> rjulf ‘nj ye;yj> ghtlkju $
$. ˙‡
˙‚ÂÚ ·‰Â‡ ‡Â‰ ƉÙÈÁ ˙‡ ·‰Â‡ ‡Â‰ :דוגמות
U U
h ®‡
Æ¥
WWWJh
¯ÂÚÈ˘
¥
W5
W²
WEP
/P
WE
?
U W
W
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Ghbvth%
QR
Æ≥
154
Pflfqnt lheu lheue yfgbcfyyst yb;t djghjcs b jndtnmnt yf yb[.
ÆÂÚ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘
®·
h h
hm hm
hm
h h
hm h
Yfgbibnt> xnj ds k/,bnt%
ÆÆÆÏ˘ ‰˜ÈÊÂÓ‰ ˙‡ ·‰Â‡ ȇ
∫ÌÈ·‰Â‡ Ì˙‡ ‰Ó ·˙Î
®‚
ÆÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ ÂÓÈÏ˘‰
Pfrjyxbnt cktle/obt ghtlkj;tybz.
W‰‚ÂÚ‰ ˙‡ U
:דוגמה
W
U WZ
W²
² P
W W[
U
Æμ
W\
W U
W U W]
W² W W^
Æ¢˙‡¢‰ ˙‡ ÔÈ·Ó È‡ ÂÈ˘ÎÚ
W W_
W
W W`
¯ÂÚÈ˘
W
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
¥
155
ÆÌȯÂȈ· ¯ÊÚȉ ƉȯËÙ˜· ÌÎÈÈ· ÂÁÁ¢
Gj,tctleqnt lheu c lheujv d rfatnthbb.
Bcgjkmpeqnt bkk/cnhfwbb.
:דוגמה
hP V
WP WV
WP W V
®·
¢ÏÃÚ≠ÏŒ‡¢· χ¯˘ÈÏ ˜¯³ÂÈ≠eÈÓ
Q
Æ∂
cK K K K V KVK
U
U
t
W
¯ÂÚÈ˘
¥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
cK K K KKVK
W$
¹
W
WK K
W
W
²
m
156
W W
UK K W U
WV9
¢ÆÆÆÌÎÈÏÚ ÌÂÏ ˘ ‡·‰¢
Jndtnmnt yf cktle/obt djghjcs d cjjndtncndbb c ntrcnjv.
h W`
h Wa
h Wb
ÆËҘˉ ÈÙÏ ÂÚ
®·
h WZ
h W[
h W\
h W]
h W^
h W_
h h² c ∫·˙Î
ÆÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ ·˙ÎÂ
˙‡
Œ
®‚
ÂÙÈÒ‰ ¨ÌÈËÙ˘ÓÏ ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ˙‡ ¯„Ò
Æ∑
Cjcnfdmnt bp ckjd ghtlkj;tybz>
lj,fdkzz d gjl[jlzob[ vtcnf[ ghtlkju $ ˙Œ‡ $.
XX X
:דוגמה
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ljhjujq#fz> ljhjujcnjzobq
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ÌÈÊÂÙ˙ ˙‚ÂÚ ¨ÌÈÊÂÙ˙ ıÚ :דוגמה
ÌÈÊÂÙ˙ ˙‚ÂÚ ¨ÌÈÊÂÙ˙ ȈÚ
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hfpkbxyst cdzpb !cv. eghf;ytybt 5 fkta@. Pyfxtybz hfpkbxys[
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gj’njve cjghz;tyyjt cjxtnfybt ghtlcnfdkztn cj,jq blbjve>
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ceotcndbntkmys[ !cv. eghf;ytybt 7 fkta@. Blbjvfnbxtcrbt
cjghz;tyyst cjxtnfybz vj;yj yfqnb d ckjdfht gj gthdjve ckjde.
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256
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‰Â‰ ÔÓÊ ≠ ÌÈÓÏ˘‰ ˙¯Ê‚ ≠ ÏÚÙ˙‰ ÔÈÈ·
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ajhvs ukfujkjd.
Ư‰Ó ˙˘·Ï˙Ó
Ư‰Ó ÌÈ˘·Ï˙Ó
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byabybnbd
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rjnjhst> gj dfitve vytyb/> gjkexbkb k/lb> gjckfdibt ‘nb gbcmvf.
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c rf;lsv hbceyrjv.
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Ghjxnbnt cktle/obt ckjdf b cjcnfdmnt bp yb[
ghtlkj;tybz.
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ÆÌÈËÙ˘Ó Ì‰Ó Â·˙ΠÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜
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bpj,hf;tybzvb cneltynjd.
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k/Uk
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º
) > $wtkst$ rjhyb>
yfcnjzott dhtvz b byabybnbd
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c
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˙ÂÈÂ˘Ï ˙¯ډ
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267
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ø‰ÏÂÚ ‰Ê ‰ÓÎW :דוגמה
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X X XX XX
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Hfccnfdmnt ckjdf nfr> xnj,s gjkexbkbcm
pfrjyxtyyst ghtlkj;tybz.
338
ƉÓȇ˙Ó‰ ‰ÏÈÓ‰ ˙‡ ÂÓÒ
Gjlxthrybnt gjl[jlzott ckjdj.
Æ≥
ø‰Ê ÈÓ ø‰Ê ‰Ó
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ƉȈ‡ÂËÈÒ‰ ˙‡ ÂÊÈÁÓ‰ øÌÈ˘ÂÚ Ì˙‡ ‰Ó
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Ds yf[jlbntcm lfktrj jn ljvf b [jnbnt gjpdjybnm ljvjq> yj e dfc ytn ntktajyyjq
rfhnjxrb. Xnj ltkfnm* Bycwtybheqnt ‘ne cbnefwb/.
W ˯Î
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339
hU
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c
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Gjlxthrybnt yfb,jktt gjl[jlzott
jghtltktybt cktdf jn pyfrf hfdtycndf.
340
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c W
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dgbibnt tuj d gjl[jlzott ghtlkj;tybt.
UUUmUmUmU
W
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ÂÏ˘ W Ï˘ :דוגמה
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X
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WVVV P Q\
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Ư‡Â˙ ˙ÂÓ˘ ´ ÌˆÚ ˙ÂÓ˘ ≠ ‰È˘‰Â ˙ÂÈÂÎÈÓÒ ≠ ˙Á‡‰
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gthdsq cgbcjr - cjghz;tyyst cjxtnfybz bvty>
dnjhjq cgbcjr - ceotcndbntkmyst } ghbkfufntkmyst.
Yfgbibnt rf;le/ rjv,byfwb/ ckjd dj vyj;tcndtyyjv xbckt.
Lj,fdmnt r rf;ljq rjv,byfwbb jghtltktyysq fhnbkm $ ‰ $.
c
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342
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c
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Cghjcbnt lheu e lheuf.
h
h h
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hh
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∫˙¯Ó‡ ˙·˘ÂÁ ÈÂß‚ Ï˘ ‡Óȇ
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Ljgbibnt gbcmvj> rjnjhjt
gbcfk cdjtq vfnthb.
ÈÂß‚
ÆÂÏ˘ ‡ÓÈ‡Ï ÈÂß‚ Ï˘ ·˙ÎÓ‰ ˙‡ ·˙Î
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W\W[ WZ
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U UUUUU UU∫ÌÈÏÈÓ· ¢Ó˙˘‰
mUEEU U U U5UU
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gj dfitve ;tkfyb/.
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mW
mW
mW
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h
h
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W
²
W
Ukfujk } ukfujks d byabybnbdyjq ajhvt
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Yfgbibnt> rnj crfpfk ‘nb ahfps - XX X X
®‡
Ô‚ ≠ W
:דוגמה
W
W J
W
W
ÈœË
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349
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h
h
h
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h
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Yfgbibnt
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X !dthyj#yt dthyj@ d cjjndtncndbb c jnhsdrjv.
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
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W[
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W]
W^
W_
W`
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> cneltyn-vfntvfnbr> hfpujdfhbdftn c P > djkjynthjv ,jnfybxtcrjuj cflf.
Ghblevfqnt lbfkju vt;le ybvb d ,jnfybxtcrjv cfle.
Ghbvth yfxfkf lbfkjuf%
c
דוגמה
ø‰Ê‰ ÁÓˆ‰ Ï˘ Ì˘‰ ‰Ó Èχ Ú„ÂÈ ‰˙‡ ¨‰ÁÈÏÒc
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Ghbvth jrjyxfybz lbfkjuf.
c
דוגמה
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5
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Yfgbibnt - XXX } ghfdbkmysq ukfujk d byabybnbdt.
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:דוגמה
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bp yb;tcktle/otuj cgbcrf.
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ƉÓÈ˘¯‰Ó T ≠· ¢Ó˙˘‰
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X XÂ X XX X X X c
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hfpujdjh vt;le dfvb b jlybv bp dfib[ lheptq.
7
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353
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Yfgbibnt pfvtnre j pjjkjubxtcrjv cflt d Bthecfkbvt> jcyjdsdfzcm yf jnhsdrt j
,jnfybxtcrjv cflt bp Q 5.Bcgjkmpeqnt byajhvfwb/ bp ljcrb j,(zdktybq d Q 9.
ÆÆÆ „ÈÏ ¨˙ÁÓ ˙Â΢· ¨ÌÈÏ˘Â¯È·
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Yfgbibnt ytcrjkmrj ghtlkj;tybq cj ckjdfvb U bcgjkmpez byajhvfwb/
bp ljcrb j,(zdktybq Q 9.
ÆÌÈÙÂ˜Ï Ï· ˙˙ ‰È„ ÍÎ ¯Á‡ ¨˙ÂÈÁ‰ Ô‚ ˙‡ Á˙ÂÙ ÈÂß‚ ̄˜ :דוגמה
8
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Yfgbibnt> xnj ds ltkftnt rf;ljt enhj bkb .
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Æ˘·Ï˙Ó ÍÎ ¯Á‡Â ıÁ¯˙Ó È‡ ̄˜VX :דוגמה
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ÆÌÈÓȇ˙Ó‰ ÌÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ÔÈ·Â ÌȯÂȇ‰ ÔÈ· ˜ ¯ȷډ
Ghjdtlbnt kbyb/ vt;le bkk/cnhfwbzvb b ghfdbkmysvb ghtlkj;tybzvb.
W
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354
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Ckjdfhysq pfgfc
Ceotcndbntkmyst
ktd> kmds
ker
vjhrjdm
pjjgfhr#b
bccktljdfntkm
;bdjnyjt
nthgtybt
gthtw
hfcntybt#z
uheggf
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verf
cjtlbytybt # cdzpm
cjctl> cjctlrf
vfckj !hfcn.@> vfckf
djhjnf
ghjuhfvvf # gkfy#s
Ukfujks
² *UQWR/
«
ghjdthztn> ghjdthznm
5UQWR5
ds[jlbn> ds[jlbnm
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jnrhsdftn> jnrhsdfnm
²
UQWR²
QWR-#² UQWR"²
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ljk;ty> ye;lftncz
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frdfhbev
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Hfpyjt
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yt pf xnj> gj;fkeqcnf !gjckt $cgfcb,j$@ 5
vyjuj> jxtym
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crjhj> tot ytvyjuj
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cyfxfkf # hfymit # dgthtlb
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gjp;t> gjckt> gjnjv
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Ghbvth% „ÂÓÏÏ Íȯˆ ‡Â‰c
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356
≤∞
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Ʊ
Rjcdtyyfz htxm% Ghtlkj;tybt d ghjitlitv # yfcnjzotv # ,eleotv dhtvtyb
} ghtlkj;tybt d ghjitlitv # yfcnjzotv # ,eleotv dhtvtyb.
Æ…Ï ÚÒ ‰Ï˘ÓÓ‰ ˘‡¯˘
ÆÆÆÏ ÚÒ ‰Ï˘ÓÓ‰ ˘‡¯˘
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357
Crf;bnt dcke[ yt vtymit ltcznb
ghtlkj;tybq bp nf,kbws.
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Crf;bnt> xnj rf;lsq xtkjdtr crfpfk j rybut.
ƯÙÒ‰ ÏÚ ÌÈ˘‡‰Ó „Á‡ ÏÎ ¯Ó‡ ‰Ó ¯Ӈ
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XcXJhXWXUX¥¥c QZ
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µ 5
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Pfrjyxbnt ghtlkj;tybz.
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Æ¥
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ƉÏÈÏ· ÌÈ„ÁÂÙ ‡Ï ̉˘ ÌȯÓ‡ ̉
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Byjulf kbxyjt vtcnjbvtybt ljk;yj bpvtyznmcz> tckb ghzvfz htxm pfvtyztncz rjcdtyyjq.
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Wc Qb
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359
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jyb ujdjhbkb> levfkb> gbcfkb b pyfkb.
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Xnj k/,bn *
h
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h U c
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h h c
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360
Dcnfdmnt ytljcnf/obt
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≤∞
361
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D dsitghbdtltyys[ lbfkjuf[ k/lb yt cksifn> yt gjvyzn>yt gjybvf/n> yt pyf/n. Yfgbibnt
lheubt lbfkjub> d rjnjhs[ k/lb> yfj,jhjn> cksifn> gjvyzn> gjybvf/n b pyf/n.
øÂ˙‡ ˙¯ÎÂÊ Ô˙‡ ÆÔÙχ‰Ó ÂÁ‡ ¨È‰Ã ∫̉ :דוגמה
ƉÁ ‰¯ÂÓ‰ ÌÚ ’‡ ‰˙Èη ıȘ· „ÁÈ· „ÓÏ ÆÔÎ˙‡ ˙¯ÎÂÊ ÂÁ‡ ÁË· ¨ÔÎ ∫Ô‰
Dcnfdmnt ytljcnf/obt ÆÆÆ ¨Â˙‡ ¨Í˙‡ ¨È˙‡.
ÆÆÆ ¨Â˙‡ ¨Í˙‡ ¨È˙‡
∫ÂÓÈÏ˘‰
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øÈ˙‡ W hU :דוגמה
QZ
W___ h U
Q[
W___ hU
Q\
h___ W
Q]
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W ___ hU
362
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cdj/ ntnhflm.
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363
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Yfgbibnt htrkfvyjt j,(zdktybt lkz%
∫˙ÂÓÂү٠·˙Î
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364
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Ecnfyjdbnt cjjndtncndbt vt;le ghtlkj;tybzvb b bkk/cnhfwbzvb.
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365
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Ceotcndbntkmyst
cbkf # vjom
ujcelfhcndj # cnhfyf
ghfdbntkmcndj
ghtpbltyn
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gjregfntkm#ybwf
ukfdf ghfdbntkmcndf
v’h> ukfdf ujhjlf
pf,fcnjdrf
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k
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pf,sdftn> pf,sdfnm
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xnj # rjnjhsq
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yf ‘njq ytltkt
jlyf;ls> rjulf-nj
l
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.
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c
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t
c
Cbynfrcbc% Rjcdtyyfz htxm - ghblfnjxyst ghtlkj;tybz-ljgjkytybz
Ghbvth%
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Uhfvvfnbxtcrbt pfvtxfybz
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lheub[ zpsrjd> yfghbvth fyukbqcrjuj@. Cv. ghbvths dsit.
W
Yfcnjzott dhtvz ukfujkf yt egjnht,kztncz.
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367
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Gjlsnj;mnt dsitghbdtltyysq lbfkju xtnshmvz ghtlkj;tybzvb bp nf,kbws.
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369
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‰ÁÈ˘ Ïη ÌȘ‰ ÌÈ·˘ÂÁ ÏÎ‡Ó ‰Êȇ ÏÚ Â‡ˆÓ Æ˜Â˘· ÌȯÎÂÓ‰ ÔÈ·Â ÌȘ‰ ÔÈ· ˙ÂÁÈ˘‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜
∫‰ÓÈ˘¯·˘ ÌÈÏÎ‡Ó‰Ó ˜ÏÁ· ¯ÊÚȉ Æ˙ÂÁÈ˘‰ ˙‡ ÂÓÈÏ˘‰Â
Æ¥
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Ghjxnbnt lbfkjub vt;le gjregfntkzvb b ghjlfdwfvb yf hsyrt. Yfqlbnt d rf;ljv
lbfkjut ghjljdjkmcndtyysq njdfh> bynthtce/obq gjregfntkz> b cjjndtncnde/obv
j,hfpjv ljgjkybnt lbfkjub. Bcgjkmpeqnt yfpdfybz ghjljdjkmcndtyys[ njdfhjd bp
ghbdtltyyjuj yb;t cgbcrf.
U xUU U
U U
h W c
Wc
hc
m U UU c
hU‰ÈÁËc
W‰ÈÁˉÈÁË ËÏÒ W c
:דוגמה
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h W
WW
h
m 9
5U² -² UUUU
hUVVV
WVVVVVV W U
u
u
u
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u
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u
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u
u
u
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h W
W W
h
m UU UU
hUVVV
WVVVVVV W W
372
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h W
W W
h
m UU UU
hUVVV
WVVVVVV WU
Bycwtybheqnt fyfkjubxyst lbfkjub.
u
u
u
u
u
u
‰Ï‡ ˙ÂÁÈ˘Ï ˙ÂÓ„ ˙ÂÁÈ˘ „ÂÚ ÂÊÈÁÓ‰
®·
Æ¢ÏÂÎÈ ‡Ï¢ Ø¢ÏÂÎÈ¢· ¢Ó˙˘‰ ¨ÌȯÂȈ· ÌÈ˘‡‰ ÌȯÓ‡ ‰Ó ·˙Î
Yfgbibnt> xnj ujdjhzn k/lb yf bkk/cnhfwbz[> bcgjkmpeqnt ÏÂÎÈ Ø ÏÂÎÈ ‡ÏÆ
:דוגמה
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≤±
373
Æμ
Pflfqnt lheu lheue cktle/obt djghjcs b jndtnmnt yf yb[.
ÆÂÚ ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘
h X
h X
h X
h X
h X
h X
h X
h X
Æ∂
QZ
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Q^
Q_
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h
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ÆÔ‚ÃÃa ÏAÀ‚ Ï«„À‚ ÔÀ‚@ ¨Ô‚ÃÃa ÔÀ‚@ ÏBÈœ‚ ÔÀ ‚Ã
ÆÌÈX‰⁄ÓÃÓŸ‰ÃŸÓ ‡¿ Èœ ‡⁄
Æ˘ÁÀÀ _˘×À ˘ÁÀÀ
U
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W
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U ² ·K
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U
µ
U © /cUW 9E
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WV
h Q[
h QZ
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ÌÈœÓe„O ˙‡
³ Ÿ
374
QZ`R
QZb R
Q\ZR
Q[\ R
Q\R
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QZZ¦ R
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ÆÌȈÈÁ· ͯ„‰ ˙‡ ÂÓÒ ˙ÂÙÓ· ÂÏÎ˙Ò‰ ¨˙ÂÁÈ˘‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜
Æ∏
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Ghjxnbnt lbfkjub> gjcvjnhbnt yf rfhns b yfhbceqnt cnhtkrb> jnvtxf/obt vfhihens.
Æ®ÈÓ‡ω ÌȯÙÒ‰ ˙È·© ˙ÈÓ‡ω ‰ÈȯÙÒÏ ÌÈÏ˘Â¯È· ÔÂËÏȉ ÔÂÏÓÓ
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≤±
375
h
U
W
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h
Wb W
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U? W
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W
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u
u
u
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u
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Ìȉ ÛÂÁÏ ·È·‡ Ï˙· ˙ÈÊίӉ ‰Á˙‰Ó
U u
h
W] U u
h u
W V u
U U
W ² E
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ÆÈ˘‰ ̘ÓÏ „Á‡ ̘ÓÓ ÌÈÚÈ‚Ó Íȇ ¯‡˙È ‰˙Èη ¯·Á
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Yfhbceqnt yt,jkmijq gkfy bpdtcnyjq dfv xfcnb ujhjlf. Jnvtnmnt yf gkfyt ldf geyrnf b
vfhihen vt;le ybvb. Jlby bp dfib[ cjextybrjd gecnm hfccrf;tn> rfr gjgfcnm bp jlyjuj
geyrnf d lheujq.
¯ÂÚÈ˘
≤±
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
ÔÙ‚‰ ˙È·Ï ‰ÙÈÁ· ˙ÈÊίӉ ‰Á˙‰Ó
h U u
W W u
h u
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W
W
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376
ÆÛÂÒ ÂÏ Â·˙Π¯ÂÙÈÒ‰ ˙‡ ‡¯˜
Ghjxnbnt hfccrfp b yfgbibnt tuj jrjyxfybt.
ÌÈÓ
œ ÎÀÁ
⁄ É ÌÈÏ˘Â¯È È„ÏÈ
®‡
W U W 9
W h
5Vc
W
UVc
h
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QUR
ÌÎÁ
K ‰ÓÎÂÁ
ÌÈÏ˘Â¯È È„ÏÈ ˙ÓÎÂÁ
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U W
KW xU UUKc
W
W Kc
KJh
U Kc
WK x
QPUR
V x
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≤±
377
Gjxtve ht,tyjr evty> f ;bntkm Fneys ukeg*
ø˘ÙÈË È‡Â˙‡‰ ‰ÓÏ ¨ÌÎÁ „Ïȉ ‰ÓÏ
Æπ
ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ¯ˆÂ‡
Ckjdfhysq pfgfc
Ceotcndbntkmyst
cfkfn !hfcntybt@
jib,rf
yferf
cdtnbkmybr !Vtyjhf@
ghjhjr
djlbntkm
rjpf> rjps
jnhsdjr # cnb[
bltz#b
cnfywbz # jcnfyjdrf
z,kjrj
gtne[> rehbwf
5U
QWR5
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.
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by;bh> abuf
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c
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Æ·
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≤±
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
zqwj#f
Ukfujks
378
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Bvtyyst ghtlkj;tybz d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb -
ƉÈȯÙÒ· ‰È‰
Æ˙W˘e‡
ŸÓ ‰˙Èȉ
ÆÌȯ·Á Âȉ
ÆÔ‡Àk Âȉ
®‡Ï© ‡Â‰
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U
:דוגמות
W
W
W
W
W
‰È‚ŸÏŸË
à Ò
Ÿ Â
³
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W
W W
U W
WK
¸
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U W U
U
¶ 9W
U
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W.9
µ U
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≤≤
379
ÆÌÈ·¯· ≠ ‚ ¯ÂË ‰·˜· ≠ · ¯ÂË ¨¯ÎÊ· ̈ډ ˙ÂÓ˘ ≠ ‡ ¯ÂË ∫Ú˘‰ ÈÙÏ ÂÓÈÏ˘‰
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Ljgjkybnt d cjjndtncndbb c jnhsdrjv% cnjk,tw - ceotcndbntkmyst ve;crjuj
hjlf> cnjk,tw - ceotcndbntkmyst ;tycrjuj hjlf> cnjk,tw ceotcndbntkmyst dj vyj;tcndtyyjv xbckt.
‚
W
m
Ʊ
·
W
m
‡
W
m
Æ≤
Ghjxnbnt jnhsdjr dcke[ d yfcnjzotv dhtvtyb.
Ɖ‰· Ú˘‰ ˙‡ ¯Ӈ
®‚
ÆÌÈÏ„‚ ˙È·· Ìȯ„Á‰ Ɖʉ ˙È·· Ìȯ‚ ÈÏ˘ ‡˙·Ò ‡·Ò
Yfgbibnt jnhsdjr $yjcnfkmubz$ j lheujv vtcnt.
ƯÁ‡ ÌÂ˜Ó ÏÚ ‰È‚ÏËÒ Ú˘ ·˙Î
®„
Ư·Ú· ·˙Î
Yfgbibnt cktle/obt ghtlkj;tybz d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb.
W
Æ≥
:דוגמה
Æ„¯˘Ó· ‰È‰ ‡Ï ‡Â‰ ÏÂÓ˙‡
W
W
W.
­
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ÆÌÈÈÂˆÓ Âȉ ÌȯÂÓ‰ ÆÌÈ„ÓÁ Âȉ ‰˙Èη Ìȯ·Á‰
ƉÁ ‰˙Èȉ ‰ÈȯÙÒ‰ ÆÌÈÓÓÚ˘Ó Âȉ ‡Ï ÌȯÂÚÈ˘‰
ÆÌÈÚË ‰È‰ ‰È¯ËÙ˜· Ï·‰Â ¨˙¢˜ Âȉ ‡Ï ˙ÂÈÁ·‰
Æ¥
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≤∞∞∞ ÈÂÈ
¨˙ÂÈÁ·‰ ȯÁ‡ ˙‡¯˙‰Ï
ȯ‡
‰Á yt nfr k/,bn pfyznbz> rfr ȯ‡ . Jyf hfletncz rjywe pfyznbq.
Yfgbibnt tt gbcmvj.
Bcgjkmpeqnt% 1@ Âȉ ¨‰˙Èȉ ¨Âȉ
2@ ghbkfufntkmyst – ÆÆÆÆ ¨Ú¯ ¨Í¯‡ ¨ÔÈÈÚÓ ‡Ï ¨‰˘˜
≤≤
®·
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Æ„ÂÓÏÏ ¯ÂÓ‚Ï ‰ÁÓ˘ ‡È‰ Æȯ‡ ÂÓÎ ÌÈ„ÂÓÈω ˙‡ ˙·‰Â‡ ‡Ï ‰Á
Æ‰Ï˘ ·˙ÎÓ‰ ˙‡ ·˙Î
…¨Ú¯ ¨Í¯‡ ¨ÔÈÈÚÓ ‡Ï ¨‰˘˜ – ¯‡Â˙‰ ˙ÂÓ˘ ®≤ Âȉ ¨‰˙Èȉ ¨‰È‰ ®± ≠· ¢Ó˙˘‰
¯ÂÚÈ˘
380
ÌÈ„‚· ˙ÂÁ ≠ ˙ÈÙÈ ˜ÈËea
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Crf;bnt dcke[> rfrfz jlt;lf tcnm d vfufpbyt KK.
∫¯Ӈ
ø˘·ÂÏ ‡Â‰ ‰Ó
ø˙˘·ÂÏ ‡È‰ ‰Ó
ø‰˙Èη ÌȯÂÁ·‰ ÌÈ˘·ÂÏ ‰Ó
ø‰˙Èη ˙¯ÂÁ·‰ ˙¢·ÂÏ ‰Ó
Crf;bnt%
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≤≤
381
Æ˙ÈÙÈ ˜ÈË·· ˘È ‰Ó ¯Ӈ
®·
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Æμ
ÆÌȯÂÈ‡Ï Ô˙‡ ÂÓȇ˙‰Â ÌÈ·¯· Ì‚Â „ÈÁÈ· Ì‚ Ô˙‡ ¯Ӈ Æ¢ÌÈÚ¢· ÌÈÏÈÓ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÎÈÓÒ Â·
Æ∂
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vyj;tcndtyyjv xbckt b ghbdtlbnt d cjjndtncndbt c bkk/cnhfwbzvb.
:דוגמה
¯ÂÚÈ˘
ƘÂÁ¯ ̘ÓÏ ‰ÚÈÒ ÈÙÏ ÌÈ„‚· ˙ÂÁ· Ô·Â ‡Óȇ ÔÈ· ‰ÁÈ˘ ·˙Î
Yfgbibnt lbfkju vt;le vfnthm/ b csyjv d vfufpbyt jlt;ls gthtl
gjtplrjq d lfkmybt rhfz.
Æ∑
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≤≤
382
‰˘˜ ‰ÈÚ·
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Æ∏
ÆÌȇ˙Ó‰ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ÔÈ·Â ¯Âȇ‰ ÔÈ· ˜ ¯ȷډ
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W W c
m W
QZ
… ‡¿ „Á
À Œ‡ Û ‡
Ã
h
Ghjdtlbnt kbyb/ vt;le bkk/cnhfwbtq b cjjndtncnde/obv ghtlkj;tybtv.
Ư„ÂÂÒ ˘·ÂÏ ‡Ï „Á‡ Û‡ :דוגמה
¯ÂÚÈ˘
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≤≤
383
W
W
W
W
QZ
Q[
Q\
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Q^
ÌÈÈ΢˙ ÌÈÏ„Ò ÏaŒÓ
Ÿ ŒË Ú·ÂÎ
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Æπ
µk
U V U W
U$
W
U t
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W U V
lx
Uc
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k9 .
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K U U c
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U W
c UU
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klx
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384
∫ËҘˉ ÈÙÏ ‰ÂΉ ‰ÓÏ˘‰‰ ˙‡ ¯Á·
®·
Ds,thbnt ghfdbkmysq dfhbfyn pfgjkytybz ghjgecrjd d cjjndtncndbb c ntrcnjv%
Q XXRQ XR
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Q XXRQ XR
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®‚
Jgbibnt gthcjyf; bp lheujq cnhfys> zdkz/obqcz $cbvdjkjv$ ‘njq cnhfys.
ÆÈÏ˘ Ú·ÂÎÏ ˙ÂÈÙ ˘ÂÏ˘ ¨˙«ÈœÙ ˘ÂÏ˘ ÈÏ˘ Ú·ÂÎÏ
ÆÈÏ˘ Ú·ÂΉ ‰Ê ‰È‰ ‡Ï ¨˙ÂÈÙ ˘ÂÏ˘ ÂÏ Âȉ ‡ÕÏ»Ï
‰‡ˆÂ˙ ÈËÙ˘Ó
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W
ËÙ˘Ó
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ÔÎÏÂ Ø ÔÎÏ
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‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
≤≤
385
U
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W
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ÔÎÏ
U
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Ɖ٠¯˜ ÔÎÏ ¨˙Ï„‰ ˙‡ Ì˙¯‚Ò ‡Ï:דוגמה
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Ʊ∞
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W
W :דוגמה
W
Æ·ÂË ‡Ï ‰˘Ó ‰Ï· ‡È‰ ÈÎ ¨‰ÏÂÁ ‰˙Èȉ ‡È‰
ƯÂÚÈ˘Ï ‰‡· ‡Ï ‡È‰ ÔÎÏ ¨‰ÏÂÁ ‰˙Èȉ ‡È‰
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c
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c U U U
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ƯÂÙÈÒ‰ ÈÙÏ ‰ÂΉ ‰ÓÏ˘‰‰ ˙‡ ÂÓÒ
W c
W W
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‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
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h
J V Xm
h
m
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Ceotcndbntkmyst
Ukfujks
[frb !pfobnysq wdtn@
rfybreks # jngecr
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‘ktrnhbxtcndj
$Bphfbkmcndj$
gjctktybt
infys # ,h/rb
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Ghtlkj;tybz cktlcndbz
Ghbvth%
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Hfpyjt% ckjdj $ybrnj$
Ghbvth%
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Uhfvvfnbxtcrbt pfvtxfybz
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jlyfrj> d ckexft ;tycrjuj hjlf vj;yj nfr;t crfpfnm% >
Yfghbvth% .
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KUghjitlitt dhtvz
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390
Yfgbibnt ukfujks d nf,kbwt d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb.
Ư·Ú ÔÓÊ· ‰Ï·Ë· ÌÈÏÚÙ‰ ˙‡ ·˙Î
®‡
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Yfqlbnt ukfujk d ckjdfht b pfgbibnt tuj cghz;tybt d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb.
Ư·Ú· ÏÚÂÙ ÏÚÂÙ‰ Ì˘ ≠ ÌÈÈÓÚÙ ‰ÂΉ ‰¯Âˆ· Ì˙‡ ˆ·˘Â ¯˘˜‰‰ ÈÙÏ ÌÈÓȇ˙Ó‰ ÌÈÏÚÙ‰ ˙‡ ‡ˆÓ
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W ˙È˙˘W ˙Â˙˘Ï
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W ___ W ___ W
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W ___ h ___
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Æ≤ ¯ÂË· ¨‰Óȇ˙Ó‰ ‰ÓÏ˘‰‰ ˙‡
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gjbobnt b[ d ckjdfht b yfqlbnt gjl[jlzott pfdthitybt bp cnjk,wf 2.
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d cjjndtncndbb c ntrcnjv> b yfgbibnt e rf;ljuj ghtlkj;tybz ÌÚÙt bkb ÌÂȉ.
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Ds ;bdtnt d Cnfhjv ujhjlt d 1857 ujle b gbitnt Vjyntabjhb j njv> rfr
nz;tkj dfv ;bdtncz.
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Ds ;bdtnt ytgjlfktre d ‘njv hfqjyt d 1880 ujle b gbitnt Vjyntabjnb
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Jgbibnt> xnj jyb ltkfkb d rf;ljv vtcnt.
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:דוגמה
ÌÈ„‚· „ÂÚÂ ÌÈ„‚·
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Jndtnmnt yf cktle/obt djghjcs d cjjndtncndbb c lbfkjujv.
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ƉÁÈ˘‰ ÈÙÏ ÂÚ
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Yfgbibnt ghtlkj;tybz d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb.
Æ∏
ƉÙÈ ‰È‰ ‡Â‰W :דוגמה
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Xbckf ve;crjuj b ;tycrjuj hjlf.
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≠ ±∞∞∞
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Q^
Q_
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Qa
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à ≠ ¥∞∞
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Yfgbibnt ckjdfvb%
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f[YYTZYY
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fb[YT\b^
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ÆÌÈ˘ ˘ÓÁ ÌÈ˘ÈÓÁ ÈÁ ‡Â‰ Æ˘˘Â ˙Â‡Ó ˘ÓÁ Ûχ· ˙ÓÂ
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®„
Ghjxnbnt ghtlkj;tybz b crf;bnt ckjdfvb dshf;tyyst xbckfvb lfns> b gjnjv
crf;bnt> crjkmrj ktn yfpfl ‘nj ckexbkjcm.
:דוגמה
¯·ÓËÙÒ· „Á‡· ‰È‰ ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ÌÏÂÚ‰ ˙ÓÁÏÓ Ï˘ Ô¢‡¯‰ ÌÂȉ
ÆÚ˘˙Ô ÌÈ˘ÂÏ˘ ˙Â‡Ó Ú˘˙ Ûχ
WZbZ` 9
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W[WaWZbZ]V
Q[
WZ``_ ]V Q\
WZ`ab Z]V©
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WZb]aZ]VQ^
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‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
WZWbWZb\bV
396
Ɖȉ ‰Ê ÔÓÊ ‰ÓÎ ÈÙÏ ÌÂÈ Â˙‡· ‰¯˜ ‰Ó ‰Ê ˙‡ ‰Ê Âχ˘ ¨ÌÈ·Â˘Á ÌÈÎȯ‡˙ „ÂÚ Â¯Ó‡
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Yfpjdbnt tot ytcrjkmrj pyfvtyfntkmys[ lfn> cghjcbnt lheu e lheuf> xnj ghjbpjikj d
‘nb lfns b crjkmrj ktn yfpfl ‘nj ,skj.
Yfgbibnt nhb df;yst lfns d dfitq ;bpyb.
ÆÌÎÏ˘ ÌÈÈÁ· ÌÈ·Â˘Á ÌÈÎȯ‡˙ ≥ ·˙Î
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Æ˙¯ÒÁ‰ ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ˙‡ ˆ·˘
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Pfgjkybnt ghjgecrb d ghtlkj;tybz[.
˙Âȯ‡‰ ¯Ú˘
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U WZ^\` ___
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397
Jndtnmnt yf djghjcs d cjjndtncndbb c jnhsdrjv.
ÆÚ˘‰ ÈÙÏ ˙Âχ˘‰ ÏÚ ÂÚ
h
h
h
h
h U]U`UZ^\`c
QZ
Q[
Q\
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Q^
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Ds jlby bp gbcfntktq bkb [elj;ybrjd> jcnfyjdbdib[cz d jntkt lkz df;ys[ ujcntq
veybwbgfkbntnf d ctujlyziytv . Yfgbibnt ,kfujlfhcndtyyjt gbcmvj
v’he> ghbukfcbditve dfc d ‘njn jntkm.
Bcgjkmpeqnt xfcnm cktyujds[ dshf;tybq.
¨ÌÂÏ˘ ¯ÈÚ‰ ˘‡¯ „·Î
ÆÆÆÌÈÈÁ ‰Ù È˙È˘Ú
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≤≥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
‰ÈȯÈÚ‰ Ï˘ ÌÈ·Â˘Á ÌÈÁ¯Â‡Ï ÔÂÏÓ· ÌÈÁ¯‡˙Ó‰ ÌÈÓ‡‰Ó ‡ ÌȯÙÂÒ‰Ó „Á‡ ‰˙‡
Ɖʉ ÔÂÏÓÏ ÌÎ˙‡ ÔÈÓʉ˘ ¯ÈÚ‰ ˘‡¯Ï ‰„Â˙ ·˙ÎÓ Â·˙Î ÆÌÂȉ Ï˘ Ìȇ˘ ˙Â΢ӷ
ÆÌΈ¯Î ‚ÏÒ‰ ÈÈÂËÈ·Ó ˜ÏÁ· ¢Ó˙˘‰
398
ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ¯ˆÂ‡
Ckjdfhysq pfgfc
Ceotcndbntkmyst
Ukfujks
U
QWR
ktutylf # crfprf
QWR
[elj;ybr> [elj;ybwf QWR² UQWR²
plfybt
QWR
© 5
yfxfkj
QWR
º
cntyf !d dsh. $cntys ujhjlf$@
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gjkj;tybt # cjcnjzybt
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gbcfntkm#ybwf
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ckjy#b[f
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QWRE
rfhnbyf
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eckjdbt#z
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rfvtym> rfvyb
,jkttn> ,jktnm
vtxnftn> vtxnfnm
evbhftn> evbhfnm
dpdtibdftn#dpdtibdfnm>
dtcbn#m
Ghbkfufntkmyst
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399
d ujhjl
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ghjitlitt dhtvz
Ghbvth%
Xbckf ve;crjuj b ;tycrjuj hjlf
±∞∞∞ – ±∞∞ c
¯ÂÚÈ˘
≤≥
‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
Hfpyjt%
È˙Ș :דוגמה
400
≤¥
¯ÂÚÈ˘
®Í˘Ó‰© ¯·Ú· ÌÈÈÓ˘ ÌÈËÙ˘Ó
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f
c
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c
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Pfgjkybnt ghjgecrb c gjvjom/ cktle/ob[ ckjd%
∫ÌÈÏÈÓ‰ ˙¯ÊÚ· ÂÓÈÏ˘‰
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401
QZ]R
W ___
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U ___ W
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W
x
¹ ___ U
c U
Ʊ
Ư·Ú· ·˙Π¯Ӈ
Æ≤
Crf;bnt b pfgbibnt d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb.
Æ·ÂË ¯È‡ ‚ÊÓ Ì˘ ‰È‰ W :דוגמה
W QZ
W Q[
W Q\
h Q]
h Q^
W Q_
h Q`
W Qa
W Qb
W QZY
W QZZ
W QZ[
W %
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‰ÏÁ˙‰‰ ÔÓ ˙ȯ·Ú
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402
ÆÔȇ ‡ ˘È ≠ Ìȇ˙Ó ‰Ó ËҘˉ ÈÙÏ Â¯Á· Ƈ
ÆÂ˙‡ ¯Ӈ ¯·Ú ÔÓÊ· ËÙ˘Ó Â· Æ·
f@
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Ds,thbnt˘È bkb Ôȇ d cjjndtncndbb c ntrcnjv.
J,hfpeqnt ghtlkj;tybz d ghjitlitv dhtvtyb b crf;bnt b[.
W XV
:דוגמה
Æ„¯ÙÒ· ÌÈ„Â‰È Âȉ ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰‡Ó·
W
W
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Bvtyyst ghtlkj;tybz> ghjitlitt dhtvz !ghjljk;tybt@
ÛÒÎ
‰„·Ú
¯ÂÚÈ˘
ÆÛÒÎ ÈÏ ‰È‰ :דוגמות
Ɖ„Â·Ú Ì‰Ï ‰˙Èȉ ‡Ï
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rjnjhst cjjndtncnde/n jnhsdre> b !-@ hzljv c ghtlkj;tybzvb> rjnjhst yt
cjjndtncnde/n jnhsdre.
Ƅ·ÚÏ È˙΢Ӊ ‰ÏÂÁ È˙Èȉ :דוגמה
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dhtvtyb.
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